zm 


LUMBER 
AND  ITS  USES 


BY 

R.  S.  KELLOGG 


ILLUSTRATED 


THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  COMPANY 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


Copyright,  1914 
by 

R.  S.  KELLOGG 

Wausau,  Wisconsin 


LUMBER  AND  ITS 
USES 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD 

FEW  of  either  the  makers  or  the  users  of 
forest  products — and  this  includes  all  of 
us — have  any  conception  of  the  real  struc- 
ture of  the  material  with  which  they  deal.  The 
botanist  tells  one  tree  from  another  by  differ- 
ences in  foliage,  flowers,  fruits,  and  bark;  the 
microscopist,  by  differences  in  the  structure  and 
arrangement  of  cells  which  may  be  visible  only 
through  a  high-powered  microscope ;  the  woods- 
man, by  general  notions  of  appearance ;  the  car- 
penter, by  characteristics  of  texture  and  weight 
learned  in  the  working  of  wood;  and  the  ordi- 
nary user,  by  any  combination  of  these  methods 
that  may  have  impressed  him  in  the  course  of 
his  experience.  While  the  botanist  and  the 
microscopist  use  scientifically  exact  means  of 
determining  species  of  trees  and  kinds  of  wood, 
the  lumberman,  the  cabinet-maker,  and  the  man 
in  the  street  use  methods  which,  while  unsci- 
entific and  even  impossible  to  describe,  never- 
theless often  suffice  for  their  own  particular 
needs. 

3 


4  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Wood  is  bought,  sold,  and  used  with  far  less 
knowledge  of  its  composition,  strength,  stiff- 
ness, density,  and  other  qualities  than  is  any 
other  substance  that  enters  largely  into  our  daily 
life.  A  steel  rail  is  made  according  to  a  for- 
mula prepared  by  the  metallurgist;  there  are 
standard  mixtures  for  cement  and  concrete ;  the 
physical  properties  of  metals  and  stone  are  ac- 
curately known;  but  even  the  best  grading  rules 
of  the  manufacturers  are  only  approximations 
to  the  actual  values  of  the  different  classes  of 
lumber.  To  a  large  extent  this  is  an  unavoidable 
condition.  A  tree  is  not  made  according  to  any 
chemical  or  mechanical  formula.  It  is  the  prod- 
uct of  soil,  moisture,  and  sunshine  in  constantly 
varying  combinations.  Buffeted  by  storms  and 
subjected  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  drouth, 
and  flood  for  a  century  or  more,  each  year's 
growth  is  different  from  that  which  precedes  or 
follows;  and  the  resulting  mass  of  wood  is  a 
highly  complex  substance  of  which  we  know  far 
too  little. 

But  the  problems  of  modern  construction  and 
utilization  demand  that  our  knowledge  of  wood 
be  increased  in  scope  and  accuracy.  Therefore 
the  timber-testing  engineer,  with  his  ponderous 
machines,  determines  the  strength,  stiffness,  and 
elasticity  of  beams  of  a  specified  size  and  kind; 
the  timber-treating  expert,  with  cylinders  and 
pressure  pumps,  finds  out  the  best  means  of  im- 
pregnating wood  with  creosote,  zinc  chloride, 
and  other  decay-preventing  substances ;  the  pulp- 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD  5 

maker  cooks  and  grinds  different  woods  to  get 
the  best  kind  of  paper;  the  chemist  puts  wood 
into  his  retort,  and  gets  alcohol,  turpentine, 
acid,  and  many  other  products;  but  all  of  these 
problems  go  back  to  the  fundamental  one  of  the 
structure  of  the  wood  itself. 

Porous  and  Non-Porous  Woods 

The  unit  of  woody  structure,  as  of  all  vege- 
table and  animal  growth,  is  the  cell;  and  the  sci- 
entific classification  of  woods  is  based  upon  the 
properties  and  combinations  of  these  ultimate 
units.  When  cross-sections  of  certain  woods 
are  examined,  they  are  seen  to  contain  relatively 
large,  irregularly  placed  openings  called 
"pores."  Other  woods,  even  under  the  micro- 
scope, show  no  such  openings.  A  natural,  funda- 
mental division,  therefore,  is  into  "  porous "  and 
"  non-porous "  woods.  Of  porous  woods,  the 
common  hardwoods  are  familiar  examples;  while 
the  pines,  firs,  spruces,  cedars,  etc.,  are  non- 
porous.  Again,  the  porous  woods  are  divided 
into  two  classes  according  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  pores  in  the  yearly  ring  of  wood.  In  some 
woods,  very  large  pores  develop  early  in  the  sea- 
son; while  only  small  pores  or  none  at  all  appear 
later,  so  that  a  cross-section  of  such  a  wood 
shows,  even  to  the  naked  eye,  concentric  circles 
of  openings.  These  woods  are  called  "ring- 
porous"  woods.  In  other  woods,  pores  of  small 
and  approximately  equal  size  are  scattered 
throughout,  with  little  if  any  discernible  group- 
ing. Such  woods  are  called  "diffuse-porous" 


6  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

woods.  Common  ring-porous  woods  are  ash, 
oak,  elm,  and  hickory.  Among  the  diffuse- 
porous  woods  are  birch,  beech,  basswood,  maple, 
and  walnut. 

Pith  Bays 

In  addition  to  the  cells  whose  length  is  paral- 
lel to  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  wood  also  contains 
other  layers  of  cells  of  a  different  character 
whose  length  is  at  right  angles  to  the  trunk  of 
the  tree.  These  cells  occur  in  thin  sheets  radiat- 
ing from  the  bark  toward  the  pith,  and  form  what 
are  called  the  "pith  rays"  or  "medullary  rays" 
of  wood.  They  are  best  seen  on  a  quartered 
section,  and  are  what  gives  the  beautiful,  flaky 
appearance  to  quartered  oak  and  sycamore. 
The  pith  rays  are  less  conspicuous  in  beech, 
maple,  and  birch,  and  are  scarcely  or  not  at  all 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  the  pines  and  many 
other  woods. 

Springwood  and  Summerwood 

When  growth  begins  in  the  spring,  the  new 
cells  are  large  and  thin-walled.  As  the  season 
progresses,  smaller  and  thicker-walled  cells  are 
produced,  until  the  last  growth  of  the  summer 
is  much  denser  than  the  spring  growth.  It  is 
this  contrast  between  early  spring  and  late 
summer  wood  that  enables  us  to  distinguish  the 
rings  of  yearly  growth  upon  a  stump  or  cross- 
section  of  a  piece  of  timber.  The  transition 
from  the  large,  thin-walled  cells  of  spring  to 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD  7 

the  small,  thick-walled  cells  of  summer  may  be 
abrupt,  as  in  the  yellow  pines,  or  very  gradual, 
as  in  the  white  pines  and  the  firs.  In  the  for- 
mer, the  bands  of  dense  wood  are  very  conspic- 
uous; in  the  latter,  they  are  sometimes  scarcely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Counting  these  annual 
rings  on  the  stump  affords  an  easy  and  practi- 
cally accurate  means  of  determining  the  age  of 
our  common  trees.  Trees  which  grow  in  warm 
climates  where  there  are  no  fixed  cycles  of 
growth  and  inactivity,  do  not  develop  annual 
rings. 

Among  the  softest,  most  easily  worked  woods 
are  white  pine,  spruce,  basswood,  and  yellow 
poplar.  The  first  two  are  non-porous;  the  last 
two,  diffuse-porous.  In  all,  the  transition  from 
springwood  to  summerwood  is  very  gradual; 
the  cells  are  thin- walled;  and  the  texture  is 
remarkably  uniform.  None  of  these  woods, 
however,  has  great  strength.  Hickory  and 
osage  orange,  two  of  our  strongest  native  woods, 
contain  such  large  pores  that,  at  first  glance, 
one  might  think  they  were  not  strong;  but 
closer  examination  under  the  microscope  shows 
a  multitude  of  very  small,  thick-walled  cells 
which  are  the  source  of  their .  remarkable 
strength. 

Sapwood  and  Heartwood 

A  cross-section  of  the  trunk  of  a  living  tree 
will  show  on  the  outside  a  belt  of  wood  of  vary- 
ing width,  in  which  the  vital  processes  of  the 


8  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

tree  are  carried  on.  Within  this  belt  is  a  cylin- 
der of  older  cells,  no  longer  of  importance  in 
the  growth  of  the  tree,  whose  function  is  chiefly 
that  of  a  support  for  the  great  weight  of  the 
crown.  The  outer  belt  is  called  the  "sap- 
wood;"  and  the  inner  cylinder,  the  "  heart- 
wood."  The  sapwood  is  light-colored.  When 
tapped,  sap  flows  from  it,  as  in  the  maples;  or 
resin,  as  in  the  pines.  As  the  cells  become  older, 
their  functions  are  assumed  by  newer  ones 
closer  to  the  bark.  The  living  matter  of  the 
older  cells  is  gradually  changed  by  deposits  of 
mineral  or  other  matter,  generally  of  darker 
color,  which  produce  what  is  called  "heart- 
wood." 

It  is  the  dark,  richly  colored  heart  of  birch, 
red  gum,  black  walnut,  red  cedar,  redwood,  dog- 
wood, persimmon,  and  other  trees  that  yields 
the  beautiful  woods  for  which  these  species  are 
noted. 

Heartwood  develops  very  early  in  some  spe- 
cies, like  black  locust,  osage  orange,  and  catalpa, 
and  very  slowly  in  other  species.  Black  wal- 
nut is  likely  to  reach  an  age  of  fifty  years  before 
much  dark  heartwood — the  valuable  portion  of 
the  tree — is  formed. 

The  heartwood  in  some  species — basswood 
and  hemlock,  for  example — is  often  not  clearly 
distinguishable  from  the  sapwood,  and  the  older 
cells  seem  to  retain  the  ability  to  transmit  sap. 
That  the  outer  portion  of  the  trunk  is  the  main 
seat  of  vital  activity,  however,  is  proved  by  the 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD  9 

continued  growth  of  trees  for  many  years  after 
they  become  hollow  at  the  base  through  decay. 
Heartwood  is  generally  heavier  than  sapwood, 
and  fully  as  strong  if  equally  free  from  defects. 
Moreover,  it  is  usually  much  more  resistant  to 
decay.  On  the  other  hand,  since  its  cells  are 
more  open,  sapwood  usually  absorbs  wood  pre- 
servatives better  than  heartwood. 

The  Figure  of  Wood 

The  varying  combinations  of  cells  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  of  springwood  and  summerwood,  of 
heartwood  and  sapwood,  of  slow  and  rapid 
growth,  of  knots,  burls,  dormant  buds,  and 
spiral  or  " curly"  grain,  produce  the  many 
beautiful  and  characteristic  figures  which  give 
wood  a  unique  position  as  a  decorative  material. 
These  natural  variations  are  still  more  accen- 
tuated by  methods  of  sawing  and  working,  so 
that  the  artificer  of  wood  can  produce  an  end- 
less variety  of  effects  without  monotony. 

Weight  and  Strength 

Other  factors  being  equal,  the  strength  of 
wood  is  roughly  proportional  to  the  dry  weight. 
Hence  heavy,  thick-walled  cells  are  stronger 
than  light,  thin- walled  cells;  and  summerwood 
stronger  than  springwood.  Given  two  pieces 
of  wood  of  the  same  kind  and  equally  free  from 
defects,  the  one  which  is  the  heavier  and  con- 
tains the  larger  proportion  of  summerwood  is 
the  stronger.  This  affords  a  ready  and  fairly 


10  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

accurate  means  of  selecting  certain  kinds  of 
timber.  Comparisons  of  the  weight  and 
strength  of  a  number  of  woods  are  given  on 
page  19. 

What  the  Microscope  Shows 

Cross-sections  of  four  common  woods,  mag- 
nified to  the  same  degree,  are  shown  in  the 
illustrations.  Since  the  magnification  is  the 
same  throughout,  the  character  and  size  of  the 
cells  in  these  woods  are  readily  compared.  Bal- 
sam fir  and  longleaf  pine  are  non-porous  woods ; 
birch,  diffuse-porous;  and  oak,  ring-porous.  In 
longleaf  pine,  the  transition  from  spring  to 
summer  wood  is  abrupt,  resulting  in  alternat- 
ing light  and  dark  bands.  In  the  other  woods, 
the  transition  is  very  gradual,  and  often  not 
conspicuous  to  the  naked  eye.  Comparing  size 
and  thickness  of  cell  walls,  it  is  seen  that,  for 
the  entire  season's  growth,  the  cells  of  balsam 
average  the  largest  and  thinnest- walled;  those 
of  longleaf  pine  rank  next;  those  of  birch  next; 
and  that  the  oak  cells  are  the  smallest  and 
thickest-walled.  The  ragged  openings  in  the 
longleaf  pine  are  not  pores;  they  are  ducts  in 
which  the  resin  forms. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES 
OF  WOOD 

THE  physical  properties  of  wood  which 
determine  its  usefulness,  vary  with  the 
species,  the  rate  and  place  of  growth,  the 
seasoning  condition,  and  even  with  individual 
trees.  Two  trees  are  no  more  exactly  alike  in 
either  botanical  or  physical  characteristics  than 
are  two  human  beings;  hence  tabulations  pur- 
porting to  compare  the  weight,  strength,  stiff- 
ness, or  other  properties  of  various  woods  can 
be  accepted  as  true  only  within  rather  wide 
limits,  and  this  caution  especially  applies  to  the 
tables  in  this  chapter. 

Similar  variability,  however,  is  found  in  other 
construction  materials;  and  the  factors  of  safety 
allowed  for  their  use  are  as  great  as,  or  greater 
than,  those  for  wood. 

The  commercial  terms,  " hardwood' '  and 
"softwood"  do  not  correspond  to  the  physical 
characteristics  of  hardness  or  softness,  and  are 
of  little  real  value  in  this  respect.  As  ordi- 
narily used,  the  term  "softwood"  is  given  to 
all  trees  of  the  family  that  the  botanists  call 
"coniferous"  or  "needle-leaved."  These  are 
the  pines,  firs,  spruces,  hemlocks,  cypress,  larch, 
redwood,  tamarack,  cedars,  etc.  The  term 
"hardwood"  is  commonly  applied  to  the  spe- 
cies which  botanists  call  "broad-leaved,"  rep- 
resented by  the  oaks,  maples,  hickories,  elms, 
11 


12  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

ashes,  basswood,  beech,  birches,  walnut,  etc. 
The  slightest  experience  with  wood  shows  that 
these  terms  give  little  indication  of  the  physical 
properties  of  the  species  to  which  they  refer. 
There  are  hardwoods  softer  than  the  so-called 
softwoods,  and  softwoods  harder  than  the  so- 
called  hardwoods,  although  as  a  group  the  soft- 
woods average  much  softer  than  the  hardwoods. 
Comparisons  of  this  sort  may  be  readily  made 
from  the  tables  given  in  this  chapter. 

Useful  Properties  of  Wood 

The  properties  of  wood  most  important  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  ordinary  user  are: 
Weight,  strength,  stiffness,  toughness,  hard- 
ness, and  shrinkage.  For  some  purposes,  light 
weight  and  stiffness  are  essential  where  neither 
great  strength  nor  toughness  is  required.  For 
other  purposes,  strength  is  by  far  the  most 
important  consideration;  and  for  still  other 
uses,  hardness  is  the  determining  quality.  In 
some  places,  it  makes  little  difference  how  much 
a  piece  of  wood  shrinks;  in  other  places,  even 
a  little  shrinkage  will  impair  the  usefulness  of 
the  article.  Toughness  is  essential  for  many 
purposes,  but  not  at  all  necessary  for  other  uses. 
There  is,  thus,  a  very  wide  range  in  the  require- 
ments of  wood  users,  which  is  met  by  a  great 
diversity  of  species  and  physical  properties. 

The  statements  in  this  chapter  regarding  the 
physical  properties  of  wood  are  based  upon  a 
series  of  tests  bv  the  United  States  Forest  Serv- 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD  13 

ice  to  obtain  data  for  the  comparison  of  the 
more  important  species.  All  the  figures  are 
derived  from  tests  of  small,  clear  pieces  of  wood 
in  green  condition.  Tests  of  this  character 
afford  the  best  basis  for  the  comparison  of 
various  woods;  but  the  figures  obtained  in  this 
manner  do  not  correspond  with  the  results  of 
tests  upon  larger-sized  material  or  upon  mate- 
rial in  the  various  stages  of  seasoning  ranging 
from  air-dried  to  kiln-dried.  Neither  is  it  safe 
to  assume  that  the  rank  of  the  several  species 
as  to  weight,  strength,  stiffness,  toughness,  and 
hardness  is  exactly  as  indicated  by  the  tables, 
since  many  factors  such  as  growth,  situation, 
length  of  fiber,  etc.,  influence  the  properties  of 
a  given  piece  of  wood.  In  a  broad  sense,  how- 
ever, the  figures  do  have  a  real  comparative 
value,  and  they  are  of  especial  interest  since  it 
is  the  first  time  that  they  have  been  presented 
in  this  fashion. 

Weight 

The  weight  of  wood  is  usually  expressed  by 
a  comparison  of  the  weight  of  a  given  volume 
of  wood  with  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  water, 
or  by  what  is  known  as  "specific  gravity."  If 
the  specific  gravity  of  a  certain  kind  of  wood  is 
stated  as  .30,  it  means  that  a  given  volume  of 
this  wood  weighs  .30  times  as  much  as  an  equal 
volume  of  water.  Since  a  cubic  foot  of  water 
weighs  62.5  pounds,  a  cubic  foot  of  wood  of 
specific  gravity  .30  weighs  .30X62.5=18.75 


14  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

pounds.  A  piece  of  wood  whose  specific  gravity 
is  .50  weighs  .50x62.5—31.25  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  Similarly,  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of 
any  kind  of  wood  may  be  quickly  ascertained 
when  the  specific  gravity  is  known. 

Table  1  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  a  number 
of  hardwoods  and  softwoods  when  "  oven-dry, " 
arranged  in  order  from  the  lightest  to  the 
heaviest  in  each  class.  By  "  oven-dry "  is  meant 
the  condition  produced  by  drying  wood  at.  a 
temperature  of  212°  F.  (the  boiling  point  of 
water)  until  it  ceases  to  lose  moisture. 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  softwoods 
is  .39;  and  that  of  the  hardwoods,  .53;  hence 
these  hardwoods  average  36  per  cent  heavier 
than  the  softwoods.  Several  of  the  softwoods 
are  lighter  than  any  of  the  hardwoods;  but  the 
heaviest  of  the  softwoods,  as  larch,  shortleaf 
pine,  tamarack,  and  longleaf  pine,  are  heavier 
than  many  hardwoods.  On  the  other  hand, 
Table  1  contains  17  hardwoods  which  are  at 
least  twice,  or  more  than  twice,  as  heavy  as  the 
lightest  of  the  softwoods.  Any  of  these  woods, 
of  course,  is  much  heavier  when  green.  For 
example,  the  weight  of  thoroughly  dried  north- 
ern white  cedar  is  18  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  com- 
pared with  28  Ibs.  when  green;  and  that  of  osage 
orange,  48  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  compared  with  62 
Ibs.  when  green. 

STRENGTH  OP  WOODS 

It  is  most  important  that  the  users  of  timber 


TABLE   1 


1 


Specific  Gravity  of  Various  Woods 

(Test  pieces  "oven-dry") 
SOFTWOODS 


Cedar,  Northern  White.  .    .29 

Cedar,  Western  Red 29 

Spruce,   Englemann 31 

Fir,  Alpine    31 

Spruce,  White 32 

Redwood    35 

Fir,  White 35 

Pine,  Sugar 36 

Pine,  White 36 

Cedar,  Incense 36 

Pine,  Western  Yellow.  .  .    .37 

Pine,  Lodgepole    37 

Fir,  Grand 38 

Average  Specific  Gravity 


Fir,  Amabilis 38 

Hemlock,  Eastern 38 

Spruce,  Red 38 

Pine,  Table  Mountain  . .  .".39 

Douglas  Fir 42 

Hemlock,  Black    42 

Hemlock,  Western    42 

Pine,  Norway    44 

Cypress    45 

Larch,  Western 46 

Pine,  Shortleaf 48 

Tamarack     49 

Pine,  Longleaf    53 

of  Softwoods 39 


HARDWOODS 
Buckeye,  Yellow 33      Hickory,  Nutmeg 56 


Willow,  Black 33 

Basswood     34 

Aspen,  Largetooth 35 

Butternut     36 

Cherry,  Red 36 

Elm,  White 43 

Gum,  Red 43 

Maple,  Silver 44 

Cucumber    44 

Sumac    45 

Sycamore 45 

Ash,  Black 47 

Cherry,  Black 47 

Elm,  Slippery 47 

Tupelo   48 

Hackberry 48 

Ash,  Pumpkin 49 

Maple,  Red 49 

Ash,  Blue 53 

Ash,  Green    53 

Beech 54 

Ash,  White 55 


Witch  Hazel    56 

Maple,  Hard 56 

Oak,  Tanbark 56 

Oak,  Yellow    56 

Oak,  Red     57 

Elm,  Rock 58 

Oak,  Bur 58 

Birch,  Sweet 59 

Oak,  Post    59 

Oak,  White 60 

Laurel,  Mountain 62 

Hickory,  Bitternut 62 

Hickory,  Water    63 

Hickory,  Shagbark 63 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark.  .    .63 

Oak,  Swamp  White 64 

Dogwood    64 

Hickory,  Mockernut 65 

Hickory,  Pignut 66 

Locust,  Black 66 

Locust,  Honey    70 

Osage  Orange 76 


Birch,  Yellow 55 

Average  Specific  Gravity  of  Hardwoods 53 

15 


16  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

have  some  idea  of  the  resistance  which  the  com- 
mon woods  offer  to  cross-breakage,  to  crushing, 
and  to  what  is  called  ''shearing."  The  cross- 
breaking  strength  of  a  piece  of  timber  is  the 
force  which  is  required  to  break  it  when  it  is 
supported  at  the  ends  and  loaded  between  these 
points.  The  crushing  strength  is  the  resistance 
which  a  stick  offers  to  crushing  when  loaded  as 
in  the  case  of  a  railroad  tie.  The  shearing 
strength  is  the  resistance  offered  to  a  force  which 
tends  to  make  the  fibers  shear  or  slide  past  one 
another. 

Breaking  or  Bending  Strength.  The  cross- 
breaking  strength  of  timber  is  tested  in  the 
laboratory  by  placing  a  stick  on  supports  at 
each  end,  and  loading  it  at  a  uniform  rate  until 
it  breaks.  Accurate  notation  is  made  of  the  size 
of  the  stick;  length  of  span;  the  amount  of  de- 
flection, or  the  extent  to  which  the  stick  bends, 
under  various  loads ;  and  the  weight  which  finally 
breaks  it.  From  this  information,  several  fac- 
tors are  determined — one,  which  best  represents 
the  resistance  to  cross-breakage,  being  called  the 
" modulus  of  rupture"  and  expressed  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  cross-breaking  strength  of  a  piece  of 
wood  varies  directly  with  the  length  of  the 
stick,  and  inversely  with  the  square  of  the  thick- 
ness; thus,  if  a  weight  of  400  pounds  breaks  a 
stick  4  feet  long,  a  weight  of  200  pounds  will 
break  a  stick  8  feet  long,  all  other  factors  being 
the  same.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  weight  of 


TABLE  2 

Modulus  of  Rupture  of  Various  Woods 

Test  pieces  2  in.  square,  28  in.  span,  of  green,  clear  wood — 

Average  results 

SOFTWOODS 

Spruce,   Englemann.  .  .    4,200      Cedar,  Incense 6,040 

Cedar,  Northern  White  4,250      Fir,  Grand 6,090 


Fir,  Alpine    4,450 

Cedar,  Western  Red.  .  4,750 

Pine,  Western  Yellow.  5,090 

Pine,  Lodgepole    5,150 

Spruce,  White 5,200 

Pine,  Sugar 5,270 

Pine,  White   5,310 

Pine,  Table  Mountain.  5,700 

Spruce,  Red 5,710 

Fir,  White 5,970 

Hemlock,  Black 6,030 


Hemlock,  Eastern  ....  6,180 

Douglas  Fir 6,340 

Pine,  Norway 6,430 

Fir,  Amabilis 6,570 

Redwood    7,000 

Cypress    7,110 

Tamarack    7,170 

Larch,  Western 7,250 

Hemlock,  Western    .  .  .  7,290 

Pine,  Shortleaf 7,710 

Pine,  Longleaf    8,630 


Average  Modulus  of  Rupture  of  Softwoods.  .  .  .6,040 
HARDWOODS 


Willow,  Black 3,340 

Buckeye,  Yellow 4,820 

Basswood 4,860 

Cherry,  Red 5,040 

Butternut    5,370 

Maple,  Silver 5,820 

Sumac    5,845 

Aspen,  Largetooth    .  .  .  5,850 

Ash,  Black 6,000 

Hackberry   6,210 

Sycamore 6,300 

Gum,  Red   6,450 

Elm,  White 6,950 

Oak,  Bur 7,180 

Tupelo    7,380 

Oak,  Post   7,380 

Cucumber    7,420 

Ash,  Pumpkin 7,600 

Elm,  Slippery 7,710 

Maple,  Red 7,890 

Oak,  Red 8,000 

Cherry,  Black 8,030 

Oak,  Yellow    8,110 


Beech 8,160 

Witch  Hazel 8,280 

Laurel,  Mountain   ....    8,440 

Birch,  Sweet 8,590 

Birch,  Yellow   8,600 

Dogwood    8,790 

Hickory,  Nutmeg 9,060 

Maple,  Hard 9,060 

Elm,  Rock 9,430 

Ash,  Blue    9,650 

Ash,  White 9,853 

Oak,  Swamp  White.  .  .    9,860 

Ash,  Green 10,040 

Hickory,  Bitternut 10,280 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark.10,490 

Oak,  Tanbark 10,710 

Hickory,  Water    10,740 

Hickory,  Shagbark  ...10,870 
Hickory,    Mockernut.  .  11,560 

Hickory,  Pignut    11,850 

Locust,  Honey 12,360 

Osage  Orange 13,660 

Locust,  Black 13,800 


Oak,  White   8,160 

Average  Modulus  of  Rupture  of  Hardwoods.  .  .8,350 
17 


18  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

400  pounds  breaks  a  stick  2  inches  thick,  it  will 
require  a  weight  of  400x22=l,600  pounds  to 
break  a  stick  of  the  same  material  4  inches 
thick. 

The  modulus  of  rupture  for  green  sticks  of 
clear  wood  is  indicated  in  Table  2,  which  gives 
the  average  results  of  tests  upon  pieces  2  inches 
square,  with  a  span  of  28  inches.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  strength  of  these  woods  varies 
much  the  same  as  the  weights  given  in  Table  1 
(page  15).  There  is  a  very  general  rule  that 
light  wood  is  weak  and  heavy  wood  strong,  or 
that  strength  is  proportional  to  weight.  There 
are  individual  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  it 
holds  true  for  most  woods. 

The  softwoods  are  not  generally  so  strong  as 
the  hardwoods ;  but  some  hardwoods  are  weaker 
than  some  softwoods;  and  some  softwoods,  nota- 
bly longleaf  pine,  are  stronger  than  many  hard- 
woods. The  ratio  of  bending  strength  to  weight 
is  about  the  same  for  hardwoods  and  softwoods. 
Dividing  the  modulus  of  rupture  by  the  specific 
gravity  (ciphers  being  dropped)  gives  the 
results  shown  in  Table  3. 

It  appears  that,  among  the  hardwoods,  black 
locust  is  the  strongest  in  proportion  to  its 
weight,  and  willow  the  weakest.  Redwood  is 
the  strongest  softwood  in  proportion  to  its 
weight.  In  fact,  redwood  appears  to  be  the 
strongest  in  proportion  to  weight  of  any  wood 
yet  tested  at  the  Forest  Service  Laboratory, 
with  the  exception  of  black  locust. 


TABLE  8 

Ratio  of  Bending  Strength  to  Weight  of  Various  Woods 

(Modulus  of  Rupture  Divided  by  Specific  Gravity) 
SOFTWOODS 


Redwood    200 

Hemlock,  Western 174 

Fir,  Amabilis    173 

Fir,  White   171 

Cedar,  Incense 168 

Cedar,  Western   Red 164 

Spruce,  White 163 

Pine,  Longleaf 163 

Hemlock,  Eastern 162 

Pine,  Shortleaf 161 

Fir,  Grand 160 

Cypress 158 

Larch,  Western 158 

Average  Ratio  of  Bending 


Douglas  Fir 151 

Spruce,  Red 150 

Pine,  White 147 

Pine,  Norway 14« 

Tamarack   146 

Pine,  Sugar   146 

Cedar,  Northern  White. .  146 

Pine,  Table  Mountain...  146 

Fir,  Alpine 143 

Hemlock,  Black 143 

Pine,  Lodgepole 139 

Pine,  Western  Yellow. .  .  137 

Spruce,  Englemann 135 

Strength  to  Weight.  .    155 


HARDWOODS 


Locust,  Black 204 

Oak,  Tanbark 191 

Ash,  Green 189 

Ash,  Blue 182 

Osage  Orange 180 

Ash,  White 179 

Hickory,  Pignut 179 

Hickory,  Mockernut    ...  178 

Locust,  Honey 177 

Hickory,  Shagbark 173 

Cherry,  Black 171 

Hickory,  Water 170 

Cucumber   169 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark.  .  167 

Aspen,  Largetooth 167 

Hickory,  Bitternut 166 

Elm,  Slippery 164 

Elm,  White    162 

Hickory,  Nutmeg 162 

Maple,  Hard 162 

Elm,  Rock   162 

Maple,  Red 161 

Beech    .                              .  156 


Ash,  Pumpkin 155 

Tupelo 154 

Oak,  Swamp  White 154 

Gum,  Red 150 

Butternut   149 

Witch  Hazel 148 

Buckeye,  Yellow   146 

Oak,  Yellow 145 

Birch,  Sweet 145 

Basswood    143 

Cherry,  Red 140 

Sycamore    140 

Oak,  Red   140 

Dogwood 137 

Laurel,  Mountain 136 

Oak,  White 136 

Maple,  Silver 132 

Sumac 130 

Hackberry 129 

Ash,  Black 128 

Oak,  Post 125 

Oak,  Bur    124 

Willow,  Black 101 


Birch,  Yellow 156 

Average  Ratio  of  Bending  Strength  to  Weight. .    156 
19 


y 


TABLE  4 

Crashing  Strength  of  Various  Woods 

(Pounds  per  Square  Inch;  Pressure  Applied  Parallel  to  Grain) 
SOFTWOODS 


Spruce,  White  

1,940      Fir,  Grand  

3,030 

Spruce,  Englemann    .  . 

1,980      Cedar,  Incense  

3,030 

Cedar,  Northern  White 

1,990      Fir,  Amabilis   

3,040 

Fir,  Alpine  

2,060      Pine,  Table  Mountain. 

3,070 

Pine,  Western  Yellow. 

2,400      Pine,  Norway    

3,080 

2,460     Hemlock,  Eastern  .... 

3,270 

Pine,  Sugar  

2,600      Hemlock,  Western    .  .  . 

3,390 

Cedar,  Western  Red.  .  . 

2,630      Tamarack    

3,480 

Pine,  White  

2,720      Pine,  Shortleaf  

3,570 

Spruce,  Red  

2,760      Larch,  Western  

3,700 

Fir,  White  

2,800     Cypress  

3,960 

Hemlock,  Black  

2,890      Redwood    

3,990 

Douglas  Fir  

2,920      Pine,  Longleaf   

4,280 

Average  Crushing  Strength  2,960 

HARDWOODS 

Willow,  Black  

1,320      Oak,  White  

3,510 

Buckeye,  Yellow  

2,050      Cherry,  Black  

3,540 

Basswood    

2,140      Tupelo   

3,550 

Cherry,  Red  

2,170      Birch,  Sweet  

3,560 

Ash,  Black  

2,300      Dogwood    

3,640 

Butternut  

2,410      Elm,  Rock  

3,740 

Maple,  Silver  

2,490      Maple,  Hard  

3,850 

Hackberry   

2,520      Hickory,  Big  Shellbark 

3,890 

Sumac    

2,680      Hickory,  Nutmeg  

3,980 

Gum,  Red  

2,690      Ash,  Blue    

,180 

Aspen,  Largetooth  .... 

2,720      Ash,  White   

,300 

Sycamore  

2,790      Laurel,  Mountain  .... 

,310 

Elm,  White  

2,810      Oak,  Swamp  White.  .  . 

,360 

Cucumber    

3,140      Ash,  Green  

,360 

Elm,  Slippery  

3,180      Hickory,  Bitternut  .  .  . 

,570 

Beech  

3,280      Hickory,  Shagbark  .  .  . 

,600 

Oak,  Bur  

3,280      Hickory,  Water   

,660 

Oak,  Post    

3,330      Hickory,   Mockernut... 

,720 

Ash,  Pumpkin  

3,360      Hickory,  Pignut   

,820 

Oak,  Red  

3,370      Oak,  Tanbark  

,840 

Oak,  Yellow    

3,390      Locust,   Honey    

,970 

Maple,  Red  

3,390      Osage  Orange  

5,810 

Witch  Hazel    

3,400      Locust,  Black   

6,800 

Birch,  Yellow    

3,460 

Average  Crushing  Strength  3,580 

20 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD  21 

As  with  the  other  tables  in  this  chapter,  these 
results  are  to  be  taken  only  in  a  broad  sense. 

Crushing  Strength.  The  resistance  which  a 
short  post  or  a  column  offers  to  a  weight  placed 
on  top  is  called  its  end-crushing  strength,  or 
strength  in  compression  parallel  to  the  grain. 
The  crushing  strength  is  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  weight  required  to  crush  a  stick  1  inch 
square  in  cross-section,  or  in  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

The  crushing  strength  of  green  wood  of  the 
principal  species  is  approximately  as  indicated 
in  Table  4. 

Tensile  Strength.  Tensile  strength  is  the 
opposite  of  crushing  strength,  or  the  force  re- 
quired to  pull  a  substance  apart.  The  tensile 
strength  of  wood  parallel  to  the  grain  is  from 
two  to  four  times  as  great  as  the  corresponding 
crushing  strength,  and  considerably  greater  for 
hardwoods  than  for  softwoods.  When  placed 
under  compression,  the  fibers  of  wood  tend  to 
buckle  or  bend,  and  thus  give  way;  but  they  of- 
fer great  resistance  to  a  force  which  tends  to 
pull  them  apart. 

Although  the  tensile  strength  of  wood  is  many 
times  referred  to,  in  popular  statements,  as 
being  a  most  important  property,  it  is  really  not 
so  necessary  to  determine,  for  most  uses,  as  the 
resistance  to  bending  and  crushing.  For  all 
ordinary  purposes,  the  tensile  strength  of  wood 
is  greater  than  stress  of  this  sort  to  which  it 
will  be  subjected,  and  hence  no  detailed  discus- 
sion of  the  topic'  is  necessary. 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  5 

Shearing  Strength  of  Various  Woods 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch 

SOFTWOODS 


Fir,  Amabilis  

678      Pine,  Table  Mountain. 

712 

Spruce,  Englemann  .  ,  . 

692      Spruce,  Eastern  

721 

Fir,  Alpine   

614      Fir,  White   

732 

Cedar,  Northern  White 

616      Fir,  Grand   

736 

Cedar,  Incense  

638      Pine,  Norway  

776 

Pine,  White    

644      Cypress  

818 

Pine,  Western  Yellow. 

684      Douglas  Fir  

856 

Cedar,  Western  Red.  .  . 

698      Tamarack   

863 

Pine,  Sugar  

708      Hemlock,  Eastern  .... 

876 

Pine,  Shortleaf  

708      Pine,  Longleaf   

1,006 

Pine,  Lodgepole   

712 

Average  Shearing 

Strength  730 

HARDWOODS 

Willow  

1,214 

Basswood  

607      Birch,  Sweet  

1,220 

Buckeye,  Yellow  

662      Oak,  Yellow  

1,237 

Cherry,  Red  

678      Hickory,  Bitternut  

1,237 

Butternut  

756      Oak,  White  

1,251 

Aspen  

813      Elm,  Rock  

1,270 

Ash,  Black  

860      Hickory,  Mockernut.  .  . 

1,276 

Elm,  White  

873      Oak,  Swamp  White.  .  . 

1,296 

Cucumber    

991      Oak,  Post    

1,299 

Sycamore  1 

,001      Ash,  Green  

1,318 

Tupelo   1 

,031      Hickory,  Pignut  

1,348 

Hickory,  Nutmeg  

,032      Oak,  Bur  

1,354 

Maple,  Silver  

,053      Maple,  Sugar  

1,380 

Hackberry  

,093       Ash,  White   

1,380 

Birch,  Yellow   

,115      Hickory,  Shagbark  .  .  . 

1,298 

Witch  Hazel   

,118      Oak,  Tanbark  

1,414 

Cherry,  Black  

,127      Hickory,  Water  

,440 

Oak,  Red  

,146      Dogwood    

,516 

Elm,  Slippery  1 

,148      Ash,  Blue  

,544 

Maple,  Red   1 

,157      Laurel,  Mountain  

,669 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark  1 

,187      Locust,  Black    

,755 

Beech  1 

,210      Locust,  Honey    

,990 

Average  Shearing  Strength 1,180 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD  23 

Shearing  Strength.  The  resistance  which 
wood  offers  to  a  force  which  tends  to  make  the 
fibers  slip  on  one  another,  is  called  "  shearing 
strength,"  and  for  many  uses  it  is  important 
that  the  shearing  strength  parallel  to  the  grain 
be  determined.  This  will  be  discussed  later  in 
the  chapter  on  Paving  Blocks.  At  this  point  it 
is  necessary  only  to  insert  the  tables  which 
show  the  comparative  shearing  strength  of  the 
various  species  of  wood,  as  determined  by  tests 
upon  small  pieces.  The  results,  shown  in  Table 
5,  are  given  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

STIFFNESS 

Stiffness  is  the  resistance  which  a  stick  offers 
to  a  force  that  tends  to  change  its  shape.  The 
stiffness  of  a  stick  of  wood  varies  directly  with 
the  cube  of  its  thickness,  and  inversely  with  the 
cube  of  its  length.  In  other  words,  doubling  the 
length  of  a  stick  makes  it  only  one-eighth  as  stiff 
as  previously;  doubling  the  thickness  makes  it 
eight  times  as  stiff  as  before. 

Timber  testing  engineers  express  the  stiffness 
of  wood  by  what  is  called  the  "  modulus  of  elas- 
ticity," which  is  stated  in  1,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  modulus  of  elasticity  for  the 
principal  woods  tested  in  a  green  condition  is 
as  indicated  in  Table  6. 

The  softwoods  are  nearly  as  stiff  as  the  hard- 
woods, and,  in  comparison  with  their  weights, 
much  stiffer  than  the  hardwoods.  For  exam- 
ple, Western  red  cedar,  with  a  specific  gravity 


TABLE  6 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Various  Woods 

(Wood  Tested  in  Green  Condition;  Modulus  Given  in  Thousands 

of  Pounds  per  Square  Inch) 

SOFTWOODS 


Cedar,  Northern  White  643 

Cedar,  Incense 754 

Spruce,  Englemann  ...  832 

Fir,  Alpine   861 

Cedar,  Western  Red.  .  .  886 

Hemlock,  Black   936 

Pine,  Sugar 966 

Spruce,  White 968 

Pine,  Western  Yellow.  977 

Pine,  Lodgepole    993 

Redwood    1,062 

Pine,  White 1,073 

Hemlock,  Eastern  ....  1,123 


Fir,  White 1,131 

Spruce,  Red 1,179 

Tamarack    1,236 

Douglas  Fir 1,242 

Larch,  Western 1,310 

Fir,  Grand 1,311 

Fir,  Amabilis 1,323 

Pine,  Table  Mountain.  .  1,329 

Cypress 1,378 

Pine,  Norway    1,384 

Pine,   Shortleaf 1,395 

Hemlock,  Western  ....  1,428 

Pine,  Longleaf   1,662 


Average  Modulus  of  Elasticity 1,130 

HARDWOODS 


Willow,   Black    489 

Sumac    809 

Oak,  Bur 877 

Oak,  Post   913 

Laurel,  Mountain   ....  924 

Maple,  Silver 943 

Sycamore 964 

Butternut 969 

Buckeye,  Yellow 981 

Basswood  .  .  995 


Beech    1,242 

Elm,  Slippery 1,264 

Hickory,  Nutmeg 1,289 

Cherry,  Black 1,308 

Osage  Orange    1,329 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark  1,330 

Oak,  Red 1,330 


Ash,  Black 

Hackberry 

Elm,  White 

Cherry,  Red 

Ash,  Pumpkin 

Tupelo    

Witch  Hazel    

Gum,  Red   

Oak,  Yellow    

Dogwood    , 

Aspen,  Largetooth 


,033 
,040 
,040 
,042 
,043 
,045 
,112 
,138 
,170 
,175 
1,185 


Hickory,  Bitternut 

Maple,  Red 

Ash,  White    

Maple,  Hard 

Ash,  Green    


1,399 
1,420 
1,457 
1,474 
1,480 


Birch,   Sweet 1,490 

1,532 
1,543 


Oak,  White 1,214 

Elm,  Rock 1,222 

Ash,   Blue    1,241 

Average  Modulus  of  Elasticity . .  . 
24 


Hickory,    Shagbark. 

Birch,  Yellow 

Hickory,  Water 1,563 

Cucumber    1,565 

Oak,  Swamp  White...  1,593 

Hickory,  Pignut 1,648 

Hickory,    Mockernut.  .  1,672 

Oak,  Tanbark   1,678 

Locust,  Honey 1,732 

Locust,  Black    1,849 


1,250 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD  25 

of  only  .29,  has  a  modulus  of  elasticity  of  886,000 
pounds  per  square  inch;  while  bur  oak,  which  is 
twice  as  heavy,  is  not  quite  so  stiff  as  western 
red  cedar.  A  study  of  the  tables  affords  many 
interesting  comparisons  of  this  sort. 

TOUGHNESS 

Toughness  is  the  reverse  of  stiffness,  or  the 
ability  to  bend  without  breaking.  Toughness 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  properties  of  wood, 
and  is  especially  desirable  in  handles,  spokes, 
and  various  other  articles. 

The  toughness  of  wood  is  not  exactly  deter- 
mined by  any  single  mechanical  test.  Perhaps 
it  is  best  indicated  by  two  tests  which  the  engi- 
neers designate  as  the  "work  to  maximum 
load/'  and  "resistance  to  impact."  The  work 
to  maximum  load  is  expressed  in  inch-pounds 
per  cubic  inch;  and  the  resistance  to  impact,  in 
the  height  in  inches  necessary  to  drop  a  50-pound 
hammer  to  cause  complete  breakage  of  the  stick 
tested.  The  results  of  tests  of  this  character 
are  given  in  Table  7. 

As  a  class,  the  hardwoods  are  nearly  three 
times  as  tough  as  the  softwoods,  although,  as 
in  previous  tests,  there  is  an  overlapping  of  the 
two  groups.  Alpine  fir  is  the  least  tough  of  the 
softwoods,  and  longleaf  pine  the  toughest,  the 
latter  being  tougher  than  a  number  of  hard- 
woods. Basswood  and  buckeye  have  the  least 
toughness  among  the  hardwoods;  and  hickory 
and  osage  orange  are  the  toughest,  the  range 
being  very  wide. 


26 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  7 

Toughness  Tests  of  Various  Woods 

WOEK  TO  MAXIMUM  LOAD 

(Inch-pounds  per  Cubic  Inch) 

SOFTWOODS 


Fir,  Alpine   

4.4      Pine,  Norway   

6.8 

Cedar,  Western  Red. 

.  .      4.5      Pine,  White  

6.9 

Spruce,    Englemann.  . 

4.9      Spruce,   Red    

6.1 

Pine,  Sugar  

.  .      5.0      Fir,   Grand    

6.2 

Cypress    

.  .      5.1      Spruce,  White  

6.6 

Pine,  Table  Mountain 

5.1      Douglas  Fir  

6.6 

Pine,  Western  Yellow 

5.1      Hemlock,    Eastern  

6.7 

Pine,  Lodgepole   .... 

5.2      Tamarack    

7.2 

Fir,  White  

5.2      Pine,  Longleaf   

8.1 

Cedar,  Northern  White.      5.7 

Average  Work 

to  Maximum  Load  5.7 

HARDWOODS 

Basswood  

.  .      5.3      Willow  

12.9 

Buckeye  

5.4      Ash,  Green    

13.0 

Aspen,   Largetooth  .  .  . 

6.1      Elm,  Slippery  

13.9 

Cherry,  Red  

.  .      6.2      Oak,  Swamp  White  

14.5 

Sycamore  

..      7.1      Ash,  Blue  

14.7 

Tupelo    

.  .      7.8      Locust,  Black   

15.4 

Butternut  

.  .      8.1      Birch,  Sweet  

15.6 

Oak,  Post  

.  .      9.1      Ash,  White    

15.6 

Ash,  Pumpkin  

9.4      Hackberry   

16.5 

Cucumber  

.  .    10.0      Birch,  Yellow   

16.6 

Maple,  Red   

.  .    10.6      Locust,  Honey  

17.3 

Oak,  Bur  

.  .    10.7      Hickory,  Water  

18.8 

Sumac  

.  .    10.8      Elm,  Rock  

19.4 

Maple,  Silver  

..    11.0      Witch  Hazel  

19.5 

Elm,  White  

.  .    11.3      Hickory,  Bitternut  

20.0 

Oak,  Red  

.  .    11.3      Hickory,  Shagbark  

20.2 

Oak,  White  

.  .    11.4      Dogwood    

21.0 

Maple,  Sugar  

.  .    12.0      Hickory,  Nutmeg  

22.8 

Ash,  Black  

.  .    12.2      Hickory,   Mockernut...  . 

24.8 

Oak,  Yellow    

.  .    12.4      Hickory,  Pignut   

29.5 

Laurel,  Mountain   .  .  . 

.  .    12.6      Hickory,  Big  Shellbark  . 

30.2 

Beech  

.  .    12.5      Osage  Orange  

37.9 

Cherry,  Black  

.  .    12.8 

Average  Work 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OP  WOOD  27 

TABLE  7 — (Concluded) 

RESISTANCE  TO  IMPACT 

(Height  in  inches  at  which  drop  of  a  50-lb.  hammer  caused 
breakage  of  test  piece) 

SOFTWOODS 


Fir,  Alpine 9 

Pine,  Table  Mountain 10 

Spruce,  Englemann 14 

Cedar,  Northern  White.  ..  15 

Cedar,  Western  Red 16 

Pine,  Lodgepole 16 

Pine,  Sugar 17 

Fir,  White 18 

Pine,  White 18 


Pine,  Western  Yellow.  ...  19 

Hemlock,  Eastern   20 

Douglas  Fir   20 

Cypress 23 

Fir,  Grand 25 

Tamarack 28 

Pine,  Norway 28 

Pine,  Longleaf 35 


Average  Resistance  to  Impact 19 

HARDWOODS 


Basswood    16 

Buckeye,  Yellow    18 

Aspen    18 

Cherry,  Red 22 

Butternut 23 

Sycamore    24 

Tupelo 25 

Maple,  Red 29 

Maple,  Silver 29 

Cucumber 30 

Ash,  Pumpkin    31 

Ash,  Black 32 

Laurel,  Mountain 32 

Cherry,  Black 33 

Elm,  White 34 

Maple,  Sugar 36 

Ash,  Green 37 

Ash,  White 37 

Oak,  Post 38 

Oak,  Yellow 39 

Beech    40 

Birch,  Yellow 40 

Average  Resistance  to 


Oak,  White 40 

Witch  Hazel 40 

Oak,  Red    40 

Ash,  Blue 43 

Birch,  Sweet 44 

Elm,   Slippery    44 

Locust,  Black 44 

Oak,  Bur 44 

Willow    44 

Elm,  Rock   48 

Oak,  Swamp  White 60 

Hackberry    53 

Hickory,  Nutmeg 54 

Hickory,  Water 56 

Locust,  Honey 56 

Dogwood 58 

Hickory,  Bitternut 66 

Hickory,  Shagbark .  71 

Hickory,  Mockernut 82 

Hickory,  Pignut 91 

Hickory,  Big  Shellbark. .  .105 

Osage  Orange 120 

Impact 45 


28  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

HARDNESS 

Hardness  is  a  most  important  property  of 
wood,  since  resistance  to  wear  is  necessary  for 
a  large  number  of  purposes.  In  the  Forest 
Service  tests,  hardness  is  determined  by  the 
weight  required  to  force  a  steel  ball  .444  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  one-half  its  diameter  into  the 
wood.  The  tests  upon  green  wood  give  the 
results  shown  in  Table  8,  the  species  being 
arranged  from  the  softest  to  the  hardest  as 
expressed  by  the  pressure  in  pounds  necessary 
to  make  the  required  indentation. 

The  hardwoods  as  a  class  average  from  two 
to  three  times  as  hard  as  the  softwoods.  The 
hardest  softwood,  longleaf  pine,  is  harder  than 
basswood,  buckeye,  willow,  butternut,  and  red 
cherry;  but  it  is  only  about  one-fourth  as  hard 
as  osage  orange,  the  hardest  hardwood  in  the 
list.  Their  softness  and  ease  of  working  make 
the  softwoods  as  valuable  for  many  purposes  as 
are  the  hardwoods  for  other  purposes. 

EFFECT  OF  MOISTURE 

The  comparative  properties  of  the  various 
species  of  wood  as  indicated  in  the  foregoing 
tables  (Tables  2-8)  are  based  upon  tests  of  green 
timber,  which  give  decidedly  different  results 
from  tests  upon  dry  timber. 

Water  occurs  in  wood  in  two  forms:  First, 
the  water  which  fills  the  spaces  between  the 
cells  in  green  wood;  and  second,  that  which  sat- 
urates the  walls  of  the  cells.  Often  half  the 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD  29 

TABLES 

Hardness  of  Various  Woods 

(Pressure  in  pounds  required  to  indent  specimen  to  depth  of 
one-half  diameter  of  a  .444-inch  diameter  steel  ball) 

SOFTWOODS 

Fir,  Alpine   219  Pine,  Norway   342 

Spruce,   Englemann.  ...  243  Spruce,  Red 346 

Cedar,  Western  Red. . .  .  246  Cypress    354 

Cedar,  Northern  White.  266  Tamarack    375 

Pine,  White 296  Fir,   Grand    375 

Pine,  Lodgepole 315  Hemlock,  Eastern 406 

Pine,   Western  Yellow..  320  Douglas  Fir 408 

Pine,  Sugar 324  Hemlock,  Black 464 

Fir,  White 328  Pine,  Longleaf   512 

Pine,  Table  Mountain.  .  333 

Average  Hardness 340 

HARDWOODS 

Basswood 242  Beech   824 

Buckeye,  Yellow 286  Maple,  Hard   882 

Willow,  Black 334  Elm,  Rock 888 

Aspen,  Largetooth    ....  366  Birch,  Sweet 894 

Butternut    386  Oak,  Yellow 926 

Cherry,  Red 386  Ash,  White   941 

Elm,  White 511  Witch  Hazel 977 

Cucumber    515  Oak,  Red 982 

Ash,  Black 548  Ash,  Green    ,007 

Sycamore 580  Ash,  Blue    ,028 

Sumac    590  Oak,  White   ,063 

Maple,  Silver 592  Oak,  Post    ,074 

Maple,  Red   612  Oak,  Bur ,108 

Elm,  Slippery 653  Oak,  Swamp  White ,158 

Cherry,  Black   664  Laurel,  Mountain ,299 

Hackberry    677  Dogwood    ,408 

Tupelo    700  Locust,  Black    1,568 

Birch,  Yellow   745  Locust,  Honey 1,846 

Ash,  Pumpkin 752  Osage  Orange 2,037 

Average  Hardness 844 


30  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

weight  of  green  wood,  and  sometimes  more,  con- 
sists of  water.  The  amount  of  water  required 
to  saturate  the  walls  of  the  cells  is  from  25  to 
30  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  wood  when 
absolutely  dry.  This  is  called  the  "fiber  satura- 
tion point. "  The  amount  of  water  in  wood 
above  this  point  has  no  effect  upon  the  strength 
of  wood;  but,  of  course,  it  makes  the  wood  heav- 
ier. When  wood  is  dried  below  the  fiber  satura- 
tion point,  its  mechanical  properties  change 
rapidly,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  change 
depends  upon  the  degree  to  which  the  water 
is  removed  from  the  cell  walls.  Seasoned  wood 
is  stronger,  stiffer,  and  harder  than  green  wood. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  not  be  so  tough  as 
green  wood,  since  dry  wood  is  more  likely  to 
break  than  to  bend  and  subsequently  regain  its 
form.,  Small  pieces  of  thoroughly  seasoned 
wood  may  be  twice  as  strong  as  pieces  of  the 
same  wood  in  green  condition.  Owing  to  the 
checks  which  frequently  develop  in  the  season- 
ing of  large  timbers,  it  is  not  safe  to  count  upon 
any  such  great  increase  in  strength  in  them  as 
occurs  in  the  seasoning  of  small  timbers.  This 
question  is  further  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
Structural  Timbers. 

Tests  of  small,  clear  pieces  of  wood  dried  to 
a  moisture  content  of  12  per  cent  give  the  re- 
sults shown  in  Table  9. 

A  comparison  of  the  specific  gravity  of  these 
woods  at  12  per  cent  moisture,  with  the  specific 
gravity  of  " oven-dry"  woods  given  in  Table 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD 


31 


1  (page  15),  shows  that  the  latter  are  much 
lighter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  strength  at  12 
per  cent  moisture  is  much  greater  than  for  green 
timber  as  given  in  Table  2  (page  17). 


TABLE  9 


Weight  and  Strength  of  Wood  with  Moisture  Content  of 
12  per  Cent 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY 


MODULUS  OF  RUPTUBE 


Cedar,  Southern  White.  . 

.37 

Cedar,  Southern  White 

6,300 

Pine,  White  

.38 

Douglas  Fir  

7,900 

Cypress    

.46 

Cypress    

7,900 

Pine,  Norway   

.50 

Pine,  White    

7,900 

Douglas  Fir    

.51 

9,100 

Pine,  Shortleaf  

.51 

Gum,  Red  

9,500 

Gum,  Red   

.59 

Pine,  Shortleaf  

10,100 

Pine,  Longleaf  

.61 

^Im,  White  

10,300 

Ash,  White    

.62 

Oak,  Willow    

10,400 

Ash,  Green  

6?l 

Oak,  Yellow  

10,800 

Pine,  Loblolly  

.63 

Ash,  White   

10,800 

Pine,  Cuban    

.63 

Pine,  Loblolly  

11,300 

Elm,  White  

.64 

Oak,  Overcup    

11,300 

Oak,  Willow    

.72 

Oak,  Red  

11,400 

Oak,  Yellow    

.72 

Oak,  Cow   

11,500 

Oak,  Red  

.73 

Ash,  Green  

11,600 

Oak,  Spanish  

.73 

Oak,  Spanish  

12,000 

Oak,  Water    

.73 

Oak,  Post    

12,300 

Hickory,  Water    

.73 

Oak,  Water  

12,400 

Oak,  Texan   

.73 

Hickory,  Nutmeg    .  .  . 

12,500 

Elm,  Cedar   

.74 

Hickory,  Water  

12,500 

Oak,  Cow   

.74 

Pine,  Longleaf   

12,600 

Oak,  Overcup    

.74 

Oak,  White   

13,100 

Hickory,  Bitternut  

.77 

Oak,  Texan    

13,100 

Pecan   

.78 

Elm,  Cedar  

13,500 

Hickory,  Nutmeg   

.78 

Pine,  Cuban  

13,600 

Oak,  Post    

.80 

Hickory,  Bitternut   .  . 

15,000 

Oak,  White  

.80 

Hickory,  Mockernut  .  . 

15,200 

Hickory,  Shagbark    

.81 

Pecan  

15,300 

Hickory,  Mockernut  .... 

.85 

Hickory,    Shagbark.  .  . 

16,000 

Hickory,  Pignut    

.89 

Hickory,  Pignut  

18,700 

32  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

SHRINKAGE  OF  WOOD 

The  amount  which  wood  shrinks  in  passing 
from  green  to  dry  condition,  is  one  of  its  most 
important  properties.  Shrinkage  varies  with  the 
kind  of  timber,  degree  of  seasoning,  method  of 
drying,  and  manner  in  which  the  piece  is  cut 
from  the  tree.  Quarter-sawed  timber  shrinks 
less  than  slash-sawed;  some  methods  of  drying 
cause  much  greater  shrinkage  than  others ;  and, 
as  a  class,  the  softwoods  shrink  less  than  the 
hardwoods.  Moreover,  shrinkage  is  chiefly 
across  the  grain;  that  is,  a  board  loses  breadth 
and  thickness,  but  practically  nothing  in  length, 
when  it  seasons. 

Among  softwoods,  the  cedars  and  white  pines 
shrink  the  least.  The  spruces,  firs,  and  softer 
pines  shrink  a  medium  amount;  and  longleaf 
pine  and  tamarack,  the  most.  Among  hard- 
woods, locust,  osage  orange,  butternut,  and  black 
cherry  shrink  little;  ash,  elm,  and  maple,  an 
average  amount;  and  basswood,  white  oak, 
birch,  and  hickory,  the  most.  Because  of  their 
more  complex  structure,  the  hardwoods  also  re- 
quire greater  care  in  seasoning  than  do  the  soft- 
woods, to  prevent  warping  and  checking. 


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LUMBER  GRADES 

E~MBER  is  made   a   standard   commercial 
product     through    its     separation    into 
grades  according  to  quality  and  size.  The 
grading  of  lumber  is  a  commercial  necessity  for 
two  reasons :    First,  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
manufacturers  to  maintain  a  uniformity  of  pro- 
duction; and  second,  to  adapt  the  product  to 
the  needs  of  many  classes  of  customers. 

PURPOSE  OF  GRADING 

The  aim  of  a  grading  system  is  excellently 
stated  in  one  of  the  association  rule  books  as 
being  to  make  lumber  of  the  same  grade  of 
approximately  equal  value  when  produced  at 
different  points,  whether  the  logs  from  which 
the  lumber  is  cut  are  large  or  small,  coarse- 
knotted,  fine-knotted,  black-knotted,  red-knot- 
ted, sound,  or  shaky.  In  other  words,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  system  is  to  enable  each  manufac- 
turer to  classify  his  product  into  grades  of  prac- 
tically the  same  value  to  the  customer  as  are 
the  corresponding  grades  of  lumber  made  by 
other  manufacturers  from  the  same  kind  of  tim- 
ber. The  advantage  to  the  customer  in  being 
thus  enabled  to  obtain  a  standard  product  is 
too  obvious  to  need  any  discussion. 

In  the  early  days  of  lumbering  in  the  United 
States,  the  manufacturer  paid  little  or  no  atten- 
tion to  grades.  In  fact,  about  all  he  did  was 

33 


34  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

to  separate  his  product  into  broad  classes, 
known  as  "merchantable"  and  "cull"  lumber. 
The  former  contained  lumber  of  a  character  fit 
for  general  use;  the  latter,  lumber  of  much 
poorer  quality,  which  sold  for  a  low  price  and 
was  fit  for  little  but  temporary  use  or  for  the 
manufacture  of  boxes  in  the  process  of  which 
the  worst  of  the  defects  could  be  cut  out.  Under 
this  system,  or  lack  of  system,  the  dealer  pur- 
chased large  stocks  of  lumber,  and  roughly  sep- 
arated them  into  classes  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  his  customers. 

It  was  not  until  the  later  eighties  that  the 
manufacturers  of  lumber  seriously  undertook 
the  establishment  of  a  thorough-going  system 
of  grades  for  their  products.  By  that  time  the 
annual  output  of  lumber,  and  especially  of  white 
pine,  had  become  so  large  that  the  adoption  of 
uniform  grades  was  really  a  necessity  for  both 
producer  and  consumer.  And  it  was  only 
through  the  organization  of  lumber  manufactur- 
ers in  a  common  territory  and  into  an  associa- 
tion, that  standardization  of  product  became 
possible.  The  first  effective  organization  of 
this  sort  was  that  of  the  white  pine  manufactur- 
ers in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley;  and  the 
plan  which  they  adopted  has  been  the  essential 
basis  upon  which  nearly  all  other  organizations 
of  lumber  manufacturers  have  been  built  up. 

The  first  thing  the  white  pine  manufacturers 
did  was  to  agree  upon  the  grades  of  lumber 
which  should  be  recognized  as  standard,  and 


LUMBER  GRADES  35 

to  take  measures  to  make  these  standards  known 
to  both  producers  and  consumers.  This  re- 
quired that  specifications  be  carefully  drawn 
and  published,  and  that  experts  be  employed  to 
apply  them.  The  manufacturers  therefore  or- 
ganized an  inspection  bureau  composed  of  ex- 
perienced lumber  graders,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
travel  from  mill  to  mill,  instructing  the  manu- 
facturers how  to  conform  the  product  to  stand- 
ard grades.  Moreover,  these  inspectors  were 
sent  to  reinspect  a  shipment  whenever  the  buyer 
complained  that  the  manufacturers  did  not  ship 
the  grades  named  in  the  invoice.  Work  of  this 
kind  proved  so  beneficial  that  the  example 
spread  until,  in  every  large  manufacturing  re- 
gion in  the  United  States,  there  is  now  an  or- 
ganization which  determines  the  standard  grades 
for  each  of  the  principal  kinds  of  lumber,  and 
whose  authority  in  this  respect  is  generally  rec- 
ognized. The  development  and  general  accept- 
ance of  these  grading  systems  is  one  of  the  best 
examples  we  have  of  the  growth  of  commercial 
usages  which  for  all  practical  purposes  are  as 
binding  as  legal  enactment. 

THE  BASIS  FOR  GRADES 

Lumber  is  separated  into  grades  on  the  basis 
of  the  defects  which  it  contains;  and  the  first 
step  in  the  formulation  of  a  grading  system  is 
to  define  the  admissible  defects.  Defects  us- 
ually recognized  are:  knots,  knot-holes,  shake, 
wane,  rot,  stain,  etc.  Poor  manufacture  is  also 


36  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

a  defect;  and  grading  rules  generally  require 
that  lumber  must  be  properly  manufactured, 
with  parallel  edges  and  square  ends. 

In  the  determination  of  lumber  grades,  two 
general  classes  of  usage  are  considered:  First, 
those  in  which  the  lumber  is  used  in  its  entirety; 
and  second,  those  in  which  the  lumber  is  cut  to 
new  dimensions  in  the  process  of  re-working 
into  other  products.  Into  the  first  class  falls 
the  larger  proportion  of  the  softwood  lumber 
used  for  general  construction.  Dimension,  for 
example,  is  used  for  studding,  joists,  sills,  raft- 
ers, etc. ;  and  boards  are  used  for  siding,  sheath- 
ing, roof-boards,  partitions,  and  the  like.  In 
either  case,  the  lumber  is  used  in  essentially  the 
form  and  size  in  which  it  is  first  manufactured; 
and  the  grades  provided  for  it  require  that  the 
defects  shall  not  be  of  such  character  or  in  such 
quantity  as  to  impair  the  usefulness  of  the  piece 
as  a  whole.  In  other  words,  a  piece  of  dimen- 
sion may  contain  knots,  shake,  pitch  streaks,  or 
decay;  but  these  defects  must  not  be  so  located 
or  so  numerous  as  to  render  the  piece  too  weak 
to  be  used  for  studding,  joists,  and  similar  pur- 
poses. 

The  cutting  grades  of  lumber  find  their 
largest  use  in  factories  where  they  are  cut  to 
smaller  dimensions  and  re-worked  into  a  multi- 
tude of  articles,  such  as  furniture,  sash,  doors, 
interior  finish,  packing  boxes,  etc.  Many  of 
the  products  of  these  factories  contain  only 
sound,  clear  lumber  when  finished;  but,  since 


LUMBER  GRADES 


37 


the  lumber  is  cut 
into  very  different 
sizes  from  those  in 
which  it  was  orig- 
inally manufactur- 
ed, it  is  possible  to 
cut  out  the  por- 
tions which  con- 
tain knots,  rot,  and 
other  defects,  and 
to  obtain  clear, 
sound  pieces  of  the 
sizes  needed  for  the 
finished  articles.  A 
common  require- 
ment in  grades  of 
this  sort,  therefore, 
is  that  a  certain 
grade  of  lumber 
must  contain  a 
specified  percent- 
age of  clear  stock 
in  sections  of  speci- 
fied sizes.  For  ex- 
ample, the  grade  of 
No.  1  Shop  Com- 
mon in  white  pine 
must  contain  not 
less  than  50  per 
cent  nor  more  than 
70  per  cent  of  cut- 
tings suitable  for 


38  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

use  in  the  manufacture  of  doors,  these  cuttings 
to  be  of  specified  lengths  and  widths.  Again,  the 
rules  of  the  National  Hardwood  Lumber  Asso- 
ciation require  that  the  grade  of  No.  1  Common 
must  contain  clear  stock  in  pieces  3  and  4  inches 
wide  and  6  and  7  feet  long;  and  that  the  larger 
boards  of  this  grade  must  be  of  a  character 
which  will  permit  their  being  cut  into  a  certain 
number  of  clear  pieces  equivalent  in  total  size 
to  two-thirds  the  area  of  the  original  board. 

PRINCIPAL  SYSTEMS  OF  GRADING 

The  principal  associations  of  lumber  manu- 
facturers in  the  United  States  which  have 
adopted  standard  grading  rules  for  their  prod- 
ucts and  for  the  woods  which  the  members  of 
each  organization  chiefly  manufacture,  are  as 
follows: 

California  Sugar  and  White  Pine  Association,  San  Francisco, 
Cal. — Sugar  pine,  California  white  pine,  Western  yellow  pine. 

Georgia-Florida  Sawmill  Association,  Jacksonville,  Fla. — 
Yellow  pine  (chiefly  longleaf,  shortleaf,  and  Cuban  pine). 

Hardwood  Manufacturers  Association  of  the  United  States, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.— Ash,  basswood,  beech,  buckeye,  butternut, 
cherry,  chestnut,  cottonwood,  elm,  gum,  hickory,  maple,  wal- 
nut, poplar,  sycamore,  tupelo. 

Maple  Flooring  Manufacturers  Association,  Chicago,  111. — 
Maple,  beech,  and  birch  flooring. 

Michigan  Hardwood  Manufacturers  Association,  Cadillac, 
Mich. — Hemlock.  Hardwood  rules  the  same  as  the  National 
Hardwood  Lumber  Association. 

National  Hardwood  Lumber  Association,  Chicago,  111. — Ash, 
basswood,  beech,  birch,  buckeye,  butternut,  cherry,  chestnut, 
cottonwood,  sassafras,  elm,  gum,  hickory,  locust,  magnolia, 
maple,  oak,  pecan,  poplar,  sycamore,  walnut. 

Northern  Hemlock  and  Hardwood  Manufacturers  Associa- 
tion, Wausau,  Wis. — Hemlock.  Hardwood  rules  the  same  as 
the  National  Hardwood  Lumber  Association. 


LUMBER  GRADES  39 

Northern  Pine  Manufacturers  Association,  Minneapolis, 
Minn. — White  pine,  Norway  pine,  spruce,  tamarack. 

North  Carolina  Pine  Manufacturers  Association,  Norfolk,  Va. 
— North  Carolina  pine  (mostly  loblolly;  some  shortleaf  pine). 

Oak  Flooring  Manufacturers  Association,  Detroit,  Mich. — 
Oak  flooring. 

Redwood  Manufacturers  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. — 
Redwood. 

Southern  Cypress  Manufacturers  Association,  New  Orleans, 
La. — Cypress,  tupelo. 

Spruce  Manufacturers  Association,  New  York,  N.  Y. — East- 
ern spruce. 

West  Coast  Lumber  Manufacturers  Association,  Tacoma, 
Wash. — Douglas  fir,  Western  spruce,  cedar,  and  hemlock. 

Western  Pine  Manufacturers  Association,  Spokane,  Wash. — 
Western  pine,  Idaho  white  pine,  fir,  and  larch. 

Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers  Association,  St.  Louis,  Mo. — 
Longleaf  pine,  shortleaf  pine. 

Copies  of  their  complete  grading  rules  are 
supplied  by  these  associations  upon  application, 
free  of  charge,  or  at  a  nominal  price.  The  as- 
sociations are  generally  anxious  to  make  their 
grades  as  widely  known  and  used  as  possible. 

Diversity  of  Grades 

A  few  illustrations  will  suffice  to  show  the 
extent  to  which  the  lumber  manufacturers  have 
gone  in  establishing  grades  suitable  for  a  wide 
diversity  of  purposes.  The  rules  of  the  North- 
ern Pine  Manufacturers  Association  provide 
for  7  grades  of  thick  finishing  lumber  in  thick- 
nesses of  1*4  inches,  1%  inches,  and  2  inches. 
There  are  also  9  grades  of  inch  finishing  lumber, 
5  grades  of  siding  and  flooring,  3  grades  of  ship- 
lap,  5  grades  of  shop  lumber,  3  grades  of  factory 
select  lumber,  6  grades  of  thick  common  lum- 
ber, 5  grades  of  common  boards,  4  grades  of 


40  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

fencing,  3  grades  of  dimension,  and  2  grades  of 
lath.  Under  these  rules  the  upper  grades  in 
the  various  classes  are  designated  by  letters  as 
A,  B,  C,  D,  and  the  lower  grades  by  numerals 
as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  No.  4,  and  No.  5. 

The  rules  for  hardwoods  adopted  by  the  Na- 
tional Hardwood  Lumber  Association  and  the 
Hardwood  Manufacturers  Association  provide 
in  most  cases  for  the  following  grades,  begin- 
ning with  the  highest:  Firsts  and  Seconds,  No. 
1  Common,  No.  2  Common,  and  No.  3  Common. 
No.  4  Common  is  also  provided  for  many  woods. 
In  addition  to  these  general  grades,  there  are 
a  large  number  of  special  grades  for  the  various 
hardwoods,  covering  box  lumber,  vehicle  and 
wagon  stock,  furniture  stock,  flooring  stock, 
quarter-sawed  lumber,  panel  material,  etc. 

In  the  softwoods  most  largely  used  for  gen- 
eral building  purposes,  there  are  usually  three 
grades  of  common  lumber  generally  known  as 
No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3,  or  by  terms  of  equiva- 
lent value.  For  example:  No.  1  Dimension, 
Boards,  etc.,  consist  of  sound,  strong  lumber 
suitable  for  first-class,  all-round  building  pur- 
poses. The  defects  allowed  in  this  lumber  are 
not  of  a  character  which  will  materially  impair 
the  strength  of  the  piece  for  the  purpose  in- 
tended. No.  2  stock  contains  more  defects  than 
No.  1,  but  is  useful  for  the  same  general  pur- 
poses in  places  where  less  strength  is  required. 
For  example,  studding  of  No.  2  Dimension  is 
often  as  satisfactory  as  of  No.  1  Dimension, 


LUMBER  GRADES  41 

while  No.  2  Boards  make  excellent  sheathing, 
under-floors,  roof-boards,  etc.  The  No.  3  stock 
in  Dimension  and  Boards  is  the  lowest  grade 
generally  used  for  building  purposes.  It  is 
mostly  employed  for  very  cheap,  light,  or  tem- 
porary structures,  and  for  these  purposes  affords 
a  very  economical  building  material. 

Special  grades  in  any  item  are  put  up  by  the 
manufacturers  whenever  ordered;  but  they  cost 
more  than  regular  grades,  depending  upon  qual- 
ity and  handling  charges. 

Any  large  user  of  lumber  will  be  well  repaid 
if  he  familiarizes  himself  wtih  the  principal 
grades  of  the  leading  kinds  of  timber.  By  so 
doing  he  will  be  able  to  build  better  and  more 
cheaply  than  if  he  specifies  material  without  a 
full  knowledge  of  its  character  and  value. 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER 

A i  THERE  were  no  well-defined  grades  in 
the  early  lumber  manufacturing  opera- 
tions, so  also  was  there  little  uniformity 
in  the  sizes  to  which  the  various  classes  of  lum- 
ber were  cut.  In  the  early  days,  boards  and 
larger  material  were  shipped  in  the  rough  to 
planing  mills  at  points  of  consumption,  where 
they  were  dressed  and  worked  to  the  desired 
sizes.  With  the  development  of  the  lumber  in- 
dustry and  the  greatly  increased  variety  and 
efficiency  of  machinery,  the  manufacturers  grad- 
ually began  to  work  their  products  into  forms 
suitable  for  final  use.  This  process  has  gone  on 
until  to-day  nearly  every  large  sawmill  which 
supplies  car  trade  has  a  fully  equipped  planing 
mill  in  which  lumber  is  dressed  and  worked  into 
flooring,  ceiling,  shiplap,  siding,  partition,  mold- 
ing, etc.,  so  that  a  practically  complete  bill  of 
materials  for  a  house  can  be  shipped  from  the 
mill. 

This  advance  in  the  development  of  lumber 
manufacturing  makes  the  question  of  standard 
sizes  as  important  as  that  of  standard  grades. 
In  fact,  the  two  naturally  go  hand  in  hand;  and 
specifications  for  widths  and  thicknesses  of 
dressed  lumber  are  commonly  a  part  of  the  grad- 
ing rules  of  the  associations  of  manufacturers. 

There  is  some  variation,  according  to  species, 
in  the  lengths  and  widths  of  rough  lumber  made 

42 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER  43 

in  the  sawmills.  Since  the  softwoods  are  the 
more  common  structural  material,  and  hence 
used  in  the  entire  piece,  the  dimensions  vary 
somewhat  from  those  of  the  hardwoods,  of  which 
the  bulk  are  cut  to  new  sizes  in  the  process  of 
re-manufacturing.  The  standard  lengths  of  soft- 
woods are  commonly  in  multiples  of  2  feet,  be- 
ginning at  4  or  6  feet;  and  standard  widths,  in 
multiples  of  2  inches,  beginning  at  4  inches.  This 
is  upon  the  theory  that  these  dimensions  are 
best  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  ordinary 
building  operations  for  the  placing  of  studding, 
joists,  etc.  In  the  hardwoods,  standard  lengths 
are  usually  in  both  odd  and  even  feet,  and  stand- 
ard widths  in  both  odd  and  even  inches.  The 
most  notable  exception  to  these  rules  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  hardwood  flooring,  in  which  di- 
mensions as  small  as  1  inch  in  width,  7  inches 
in  length,  and  %  inch  in  thickness  are  produced. 
While  each  association  of  lumber  manufactur- 
ers has  standards  for  working  lumber,  which  are 
recognized  within  its  territory,  these  standards 
frequently  do  not  coincide  with  the  standards 
of  other  associations.  There  is  a  much  greater 
diversity  in  this  respect  than  is  desirable  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  consumer;  and  doubtless 
in  time,  a  greater  uniformity  will  be  brought 
about  in  standard  sizes  for  all  the  more  com- 
mon kinds  of  lumber.  The  present  standards 
for  flooring,  ceiling,  shiplap,  partition,  boards, 
etc.,  for  the  principal  commercial  woods,  are 
given  in  Table  10,  in  which  the  nominal  dimen^ 


44  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

sion  is  named,  together  with  the  actual  size 
of  the  finished  product.  The  nominal  dimension 
is  the  size  which  is  figured  in  calculating  the 
quantity  of  lumber  sold,  and  is  based  upon  rough 
stock;  while  the  actual  dimension  indicates  the 
actual  width  and  thickness  of  the  final  product. 
For  example,  a  piece  of  1x4  Norway  pine  floor- 
ing is  13/16  inch  thick,  with  a  314-inch  face. 
That  is,  allowing  for  tongue  and  groove,  each 
piece  of  flooring  covers  3%  inches  of  floor  space. 
Since  it  is  important  that  the  user  of  lumber 
should  know  the  exact  sizes  specified  for  the 
principal  woods,  the  table  is  made  as  complete 
as  the  information  at  hand  permits.  In  several 
cases  where  standard  sizes  have  not  been  offi- 
cially incorporated  in  association  rules,  the  sizes 
made  by  the  leading  manufacturers  are  given. 

TABLE  10 

Standard  Sizes  of  Different  Kinds  of  Lumber 
FLOORING  (INCH) 

F=Face.     Width  and  thickness  of  tongue  is  i  inch,  and  di- 
mensions of  groove  1/32  inch  greater. 

Woods  Thickness  and  Width  (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) 1x4  is  13/16x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5i  F. 
North  Carolina  Pine 

(North  Car.  Pine  Ass'n) 1x3  is  13/16x2$  F;  1x4  is  13/16 

x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16x5*  F. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n)  .  .  .  1x3  is  13/16x2}  F;  1x4  is  13/16 

x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16x5*  F. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .1x3  is  13/16x2*  F;  1x4  is  13/16 
x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16x5*  F. 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER 


Standard  Yellow  Pine  Ceiling,  %-Inch,  D.  &  M. 


V  y,;*  'I9& 

Standard  Yellow  Pine  Ceiling,    %-Inch,  Shiplapped 

J& 


Standard  Yellow  Pine  Ceiling, 


W** 

Standard  Yellow  Pine  Partition,  Ix4-Inch 
m* -3^" 

~T" 
i  / 


Standard  Yellow  Pine  Flooring,   Ix4-Inch 
FIG.  3.      STANDARD  PATTERNS 


46  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  .1x3  is  13/16x2*  F;  1x4  is  13/16 

x34  F;  1x6  is  13/16x54  F. 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar,  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x3  is  13/16x24  F;  1x4  is  13/16 

x34  F;  1x6  is  13/16x5|. 
Oak 

(Oak  Flooring  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  13/16xli,  2,  or  24  F;  §xl}  or  2 

F. 

Maple,  Beech,  and  Birch 
(Maple      Flooring      Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    Thicknesses  —  f ,   },   f ,    13/16, 

1  1/16,  1  5/16,  1  11/16. 
Faces — J,  1,  1},  2,  24,  3i,  4,  4}. 
Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  13/16x34  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x54  F. 
Idaho   White   Pine,  Western 

Pine,  Fir,  and  Larch 
(Western  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  1x4  Is  Jx3J  F;   1x6  is  fx5£  F; 

1x8  is  3x7}  F. 
Gum  and  Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hardwood  Lbr.  Ass'n)  .1x3  is  13/16x2};  1x4  is  13/16x 
3J  F;  1x5  is  13/16x44  F;  1x6 
is  13/16x54  F. 


CEILING  (INCH) 

Woods  Thickness  and  Width  (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) 1x4  is  fx34  F;  1x6  is  |x54  F. 

North  Carolina  Pine 

(North    Car.    Pine    Mfrs. 
Ass'n)    fx4  is  fx3£  F;  fx6  is  3x5}  F. 

Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) . .  .fx4  is  11/16x34  F;  fx6  is  11/16 

x54  F. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  |x4  is  11/16x34  F;  Jx6  is  11/16 
x54F. 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER 


47 


Novelty  Rustic"  Siding,  I"x6",  No.  117   (Standard) 
(West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs.  Association) 


Double-Beaded  Ceiling  or  Partition 
(West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs.  Association) 


Double  V  Ceiling,    %"x4"    (Standard) 
(West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs.  Association) 


r •*•-» 


Vertical-Grain  Flooring,  I"x3"    (Standard) 
(West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs.  Association) 

FIG.  4.      STANDARD  PATTERNS 


48 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


n 

it 

t    r**t 

. 

'/• 

r 

li 

M*J 

Heavy  Yellow  Pine  Shiplap 
(Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers  Association) 


1            1         J 

^ 

6"  j  •/« 

1      hpa 

i  —  _    x  T 


,"£* 

aaB      t          i 

Vertical-Grain  Flooring,  I%"x3"   (Standard) 
(West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs.  Association) 

FIG.    5.      STANDARD    PATTERNS 
CEILING  (Continued) 

Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . .  .fx4  is  11/16x3*  F;  |x6  is  11/16 

x5i  F. 

Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar,  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  11/16x3*  F;  1x6  is  11/16 

x5J  F. 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  13/16x3*  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5i  F. 
Northern  Hardwoods 

(Mich.  Hdw.  Mfrs.  Ass'n) ...  1x4  is  13/16x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16 
x5*  F. 


Bending  Test  of  a  Beam  of  Air-Dry  Shortleaf  Pine 


Method  of  Making  Impact  Test  of  Bridge  Tie 


1: 


P 


Torsion  Tests  of  Soaked  Hickory 

FOREST  SERVICE  TESTS 
Plate  6 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Old  Sawmills  in  Maine 
These  mills,  located  on  tidewater,  began  operations  in  1833 


Pnuu>  uy  courtesy  or  Boiling  Arthur  Johnson 

Modern  Sawmill  at  Everett,  Washington 
A  CONTRAST  IN  MILLING  METHODS 
Plate  7 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER  49 

Idaho  White  Pine,  Western 
Pine,  Fir,  and  Larch 

(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) ...  1x4  is  Jx3J  F;   1x6  is  Jx5i  F; 
1x8  is  |x7J  F. 

Redwood 1x4    is    1    3/16x3*    F;    1x6    is 

13/16x5i  F. 
Gum 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) Jx3  is  Il/16x2i  F;  fx4  is  11/16 

x3i  F;    Jx5   is   Il/16x5i  F; 
fx6  is  Il/16x5i  F. 
Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) ....  Same  as  Flooring. 

Tongues  and  grooves  in  inch  Ceiling  are  usually  of  same 

dimensions  as  in  inch  Flooring.     Ceiling  is  also  often  made  in 

so-called  thicknesses   of   f,   $,   and   f   inch,   corresponding  to 

dressed  thicknesses  of  5/16,  7/16,  and  9/16  inch,  respectively. 

PARTITION  (INCH) 

Woods  Thickness  and  Width  (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n.)  ...  1x4  is  |x3i  F;  1x6  is  |x5*  F. 
North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  1x4  is  13/16x3*  F;  1x6  is  13/18 

x5i  F. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) ...  1x4  is  Jx3i  F;  1x6  is  fx5i  F. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above. 
Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  .Same  as  above. 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfra. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  Il/16x3i  F;  1x6  is  11/16 

x5JF. 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  13/16x31  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5i  F. 
Gum  and  Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) Same  as  Flooring. 

DROP  SIDING  (INCH) 
Woods  Thickness  and  Width   (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) 1x4  is  25/32x3g  F;  1x6  is  25/32 

x5i  F;  1x8  is  25/32x?i  F. 


50  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

PATTERNS  OP 

Yellow  Pine  Drop  Siding 

Adopted  at  Memphis,  Ten.,  Jan.  16, 1901. 
Revised  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Jan.  25, 1906. 

Worked  Shlplap—  fcrSJf  orer       Worked  Tongue  and  Groove— 
•11;  allow  X  inch  for  Lap.  fcxSK  over  all;  5K  In  .  Face 


101 


102 


p 


Orders  for  Stock  Should  Conform  to  above  Numbers 

FIG.  6 


Note:  With  the  exception  of  Nos.  117  and  118,  the  above  patterns 
are  similar  In  style  to  the  "Universal"  Patterns  of  Drop  Siding  and  Ship- 
lap  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  Northern  Pine  and  Hemlock. 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER  51 

North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  1x4  Is  fx3*  F;  1x6  is  Jx5i  F. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.*Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) . .  .Same  as  above. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above. 
Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . .  .1x4  is  Jx3i  F;   1x6  is  Jx5i  F; 

1x8  is  Jx7i  F. 

Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce.  . . 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  fx3i  F;   1x6  is  fx5*  F; 

1x8  is  *x7  F. 
Hemlock  and  Tamarack 

(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x4  is  13/16x3J  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5i  F;  1x8  is  13/16x7i  F. 
Northern  Hardwoods 

(Mich.  Hdw.  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . .  .1x4  is  13/16x3i  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5JF. 
Idaho  White  Pine,  Western 

Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 

(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  .1x4  is  fx3£  F;   1x6  is  Jx5J  F; 
1x8  is  |x7i  F. 

Redwood 1x4  is  1  3/16x3*  F;  1x6  is  13/16 

x5i  F;  1x8  is  13/16x7*  F. 
Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) ...  .1x4  is  Jx3i  F;   1x5  is  Jx4i  F; 
1x6  is  |x5i  F. 

FINISH   S-l-S   OR   S-2-S 

S-l-S  =  Surfaced  one  side;  S-2-S  =  Surfaced  two  sides. 

Woods  Thickness 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  L^rs.  Ass'n) ...  .1"  is  25/32";  U"  Is  1J";  li"  is 

1|*;  2"  is  1}". 
North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Ass'n) 1"  is  13/16";    1|"  is  1   1/16"; 

liw  is  li";  2"  is  12". 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n)... 1"  is   13/16";    li"  is  11/16"; 
1*"  is  1  5/16";  2"  Is  li". 


52  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above. 
Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n)...!"  is  13/16";    1£"  is  1   1/16"; 

li"  is  1  5/16";  2"  is  1}". 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    V  is  }" J  li"  is  1  1/16";  1*"  is 

1  6/16*. 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1"  is  13/16". 

Idaho   White   Pine,  Western 

Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 
(Western  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  1"  is  |". 

Redwood 1",  li",  li",  and  2"  are  3/16" 

scant  for  S-l-S  and  i'f  scant 
for  S-2-S. 
Gum  and  Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) 1"  is  13/16". 

FINISH  S-l-E  OR  S-2-E 

S-l-E  =  Surfaced  one  edge;  S-2-E  =  Surfaced  two  edges. 
Woods  Widths 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) 4"  ig  3i";  6"  is  5i". 

North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n).  4"  is  3f";  6"  is  5J";  8"  is  7J"; 

10"  is  9|";  12"  is  llf". 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga,-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) .  .  .4"  is  3*";  6"  is  51";  8"  is  7*"; 

10"  is  9}";  12"  is  Hi". 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above  when  S-4-S. 
Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  . .  4"  is  3i";  6"  is  ej";  8"  is  7J"; 

10"  is  9i";  12"  is  llf. 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    4"  is  3i»;  6"  is  6J";  8"  is  7J"; 

10"  is  9i";  12"  is  Hi". 


STANDARD  SIZES  OP  LUMBEB  53 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    4"  is  3i";  6"  is  6i". 

Idaho   White   Pine,  Western 

Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 
(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . .  .$"  scant. 

Redwood i"  scant. 

Gum  and  Yellow  Poplar 

(Nat.  Hdw.  Lbr.  Ass'n) Same  as  Cypress  and  Tupelo. 


SHIPLAP  (INCH) 

Woods  Thickness  and  Width  (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n).  .  ..1x8    is    25/32x7|    F;    1x10    is 
25/32x9£  F;    1x12  is  25/32x 
Hi  F. 
North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Ass'n) 1x8    is    13/16x7i    F;    1x10    is 

13/16x9i  F. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) ...  1x8    is    25/32x7i    F;    1x10    is 

25/32x9£  F. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .1x8  is  fx7J  F;  1x10  is  £x9$  F; 

1x12  is  fxlH  F. 
Cypress  and  Tupelo 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .1x8  is  13/16x7  F;  1x10  is  13/16 

x9  F;  1x12  is  13/16x11  F. 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x8  is  fx7  F;  1x10  is  2x9  F;  Ix 

12  is  fxll  F. 
Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    1x8    is    13/16x7i    F;    1x10    is 

13/16x9i  F;   1x12  is  13/16x 
Hi  F. 
Idaho  White  Pine,  Western 

Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 
(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) ...  1x8  Is  }x7  F;   1x10  is  |x9  F; 

1x12  is  fxll  F. 
Redwood 1x4  is  13/16x3 i  F. 


j54  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

BOARDS  (INCH) 

Woods  Thickness 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  25/32*. 

North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.     Car.     Pine     Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    S-l-S  to  I",  S-2-S  to  13/16". 

Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) .  .  .S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  13/16". 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above. 
Cypress 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .Same  as  above. 
Douglas  Fir,  Western  Hem- 
lock, Cedar  and  Spruce 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  f ". 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 
Ass'n;  Mich.  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  13/16". 

Redwood S-l-S  to  13/16". 

Sugar  and  California  White 

Pine S-2-S  to  J". 

Eastern  Hardwoods 

(Nat.    Hdw.    Lbr.    Ass'n; 
Hardwood  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . .  .S-2-S  to  13/16". 

DIMENSION  (2-INCH,  S-1-S-l-E) 
S-1-S-l-E  =  Surfaced  one  side  and  one  edge. 

Woods  Thickness  and  Width  (Inches) 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) 2x4,  6,  8,  10  and  12,  S-1-S-l-E 

to    IfxSg,    5|,    7ft,    9f    and 
Hi- 
North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n)  .  2x4,  6,  8,  10.  and  12,  S-1-S-l-B 
to  IJxSJ,  6J,  7|.  9i,  and  11J. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) .  ..2x4,  «,  8,  10,  and  12,  S-1-S-l-E 
to  I*x3$,  6«,  7§,  8ft,  and  111. 
Cypress 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  -Same  as  above. 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  LUMBER  55 

Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  2x4,  6,  8,  10  and  12,  S-1-S-l-E 
to  IfxSfi,  5f,  71,  91  and  111. 
Douglas    Fir    and    Western 

Hemlock 
(West    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    2x4,  6,  8,  10  and  12,  S-1-S-l-E 

to  I|x3f,  5f,  71,  91  and  Hi. 
Hemlock  and  Tamarack 
(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    2x4,  6,  8,  10  and  12,  S-1-S-l-E 

to     IfzSi,     5|,     7f,     9f    and 
HI- 
Idaho   White  Pine,   Western 

Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 

(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) . . .  Jx4,  8,  8,  10,  12  and  14,  S- 
1-S-l-E  to  IfxSf,  51,  71,  91, 
111  and  131. 

Sugar  and  California  White 
Pine S-2-S  to  If". 

DIMENSION  (3-INCH,  S-l-S  OR  S-2-S) 

Woods  Thickness 

White  and  Norway  Pine 

(Nor.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  2|". 

North  Carolina  Pine 

(Nor.  Car.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n)  S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  2f. 
Longleaf  Pine 

(Ga.-Fla.  Sawmill  Ass'n) .  .  .S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  2f. 
Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Pine 

(Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  S-l-S  to  2J" ;  S-2-S  to  21". 
Cypress 

(So.  Cypress  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  .S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  2J". 
Douglas     Fir     and  Western 
Hemlock 

(West.    Coast    Lbr.    Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  21". 

Hemlock  and  Tamarack 

(Nor.  Hem.  &  Hdw.  Mfrs. 

Ass'n)    S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  2f. 

Western  Pine,  Fir  and  Larch 

(West.  Pine  Mfrs.  Ass'n) .  .  .  S-l-S  or  S-2-S  to  21". 
Sugar  and  California  White 

Pine S-2-S  to  2f. 


56  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

HARDWOOD  SIZES 

The  standard  sizes  adopted  by  the  National 
Hardwood  Lumber  Association  are  as  follows: 

Standard  Lengths 

Standard  lengths  are  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11, 12, 
13,  14,  15,  and  16  feet;  but  not  over  15  per  cent 
of  odd  lengths  are  admitted. 

In  the  grade  of  Firsts  and  Seconds  the  lengths 
are  8  to  16  feet;  but  there  must  not  be  more  than 
20  per  cent  under  12  feet,  and  not  to  exceed  10 
per  cent  of  8  and  9-feet  lengths. 

Standard  Thicknesses 

The  standard  thicknesses  of  hardwood  lum- 
ber  are:  %,  %,  %,  %,  %,  1, 1%,  1%,  1%,  2,  2%, 
3,  3i/2,  4,  4i/2,  5,  51/2,  and  6  inches. 

The  standard  thicknesses  for  surfaced  lum- 
ber are  as  follows: 

Rough                  Surfaced  Rough                  Surfaced 

%"  S-2-S  to     A"  1%"  S-2-S  to  1%* 

%"   S-2-S  to     A"  2     "  S-2-S  to  1%" 

%"  S-2-S  to     -ft*  2%*  S-2-S  to  2&" 

%"  S-2-S  to     A*  3     "  S-2-S  to  2%" 

1     *  S-2-S  to     H  "  3  %  "  S-2-S  to  3  %  » 

1%»  S-2-S  to  1&  »  4     *  S-2-S  to  3%" 

1%"  S-2-S  to  IJi" 

Lumber  surfaced  one  side  only  must  be  1/16 
inch  full  of  the  above  thicknesses. 

The  standard  sizes  for  hardwood  lumber  sur- 
faced two  sides  adopted  by  the  Hardwood  Man- 
ufacturers Association  are  as  above,  except  that 
these  manufacturers  work  %-inch  stock  to  7/32 
inch  instead  of  3/16  inch. 


SHIPPING  WEIGHTS 

THE  lumber  manufacturer  usually  makes 
quotations  upon  the  basis  of  delivery  of 
the  lumber  to  any  point  desired.  To  do 
this,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  know  the  weight 
of  the  product,  in  order  to  figure  freight  charges 
and  add  them  to  his  f.  o.  b.  mill  price.  For  this 
reason,  the  grading  rules  of  practically  all  lum- 
ber manufacturers'  associations  carry  tables  of 
estimated  weights  of  lumber  when  dried  to  what 
is  called  " shipping  condition."  These  weights 
are,  of  course,  somewhat  arbitrary;  but  they  are 
based  upon  long  experience,  and  are  fair  ap- 
proximations of  the  weights  of  the  commercial 
products  which  they  represent.  So  far  as  they 
vary  from  actual  weights,  the  estimated  weights 
are  likely  to  be  a  little  higher  than  the  exact 
weights.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  so  much 
difference  in  the  weight  of  wood  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  seasoning,  that  not  infrequently 
lumber  is  shipped  when  it  is  decidedly  heavier 
than  the  estimated  weights. 

Softwoods 

Estimated  shipping  weights  of  typical  prod- 
ucts of  the  principal  softwoods  in  air-dry  con- 
dition are  indicated  in  Table  11. 

57 


58 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


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SHIPPING  WEIGHTS  59 

Hardwoods 

The  estimated  shipping  weights  for  rough 
inch  lumber  of  the  common  hardwoods  in  air- 
dry  condition,  are  indicated  in  Table  12. 

TABLE   12 

Shipping  Weights  of  Hardwoods 

(Rough  Inch  Lumber — In  Lbs.  per  1,000  Feet,  Board  Measure) 

Ash,  Black  ...    3,200  Gum,  Red    ...    3,30.0 

Ash,  White...    3,500  to  3,800      Gum,  Sap 3,000  to  3,100 

Basswood    2,500  to  2,600      Hickory 4,500  to  5,000 

Beech 4,000  Mahogany  ....   3,500 

Birch    4,000  Maple,  Hard.      3,900  to  4,000 

Buckeye 2,600  Maple,  Soft.  . .    3,000  to  3,300 

Butternut 2,500  to  2,800      Oak 3,900  to  4,000 

Cherry 3,800  to  4,000      Poplar,  Yellow  2,800 

Chestnut    ....    2,800  Sycamore  ....    3,000  to  3,200 

Cottonwood   .  .    2,800  Tupelo 2,800 

Elm,  Rock  . .  .    3,800  to  4,000      Walnut    4,000 

Elm,  Soft  3, 000  to  3, 300 

Kiln-Dried — 

Oak  Flooring,  f'xli",  1,000  Ibs.;  3"x2",  1,200  Ibs.;  13/16"x 
li".  2,000  Ibs.;  13/16"x2",  2,100  Ibs.;  13/16"x2i",  2,200  Ibs. 

Maple,  Beech,  and  Birch  Flooring,  f'xli"  or  2i",  1,000  Ibs.; 
13/16"xli"  or  2i",  2,100  Ibs. 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS 

TIMBERS  are  usually  sawed  from  the  heart 
of  the  log.  It  pays  the  lumber  manu- 
facturer better  to  cut  the  clear,  outside 
portions  of  the  log  into  higher  classes  of  material 
than  it  does  to  cut  them  into  timbers  which 
bring  a  lower  market  price.  For  this  reason, 
timbers  may  contain  many  or  all  of  the  defects 
common  to  the  species  from  which  they  are  cut. 
Since,  however,  timbers  are  large  pieces  of  wood 
which  are  used  as  a  whole,  some  small  defects 
do  not  greatly  reduce  the  strength,  and  larger 
defects  of  certain  kinds  may  not  be  serious  un- 
less located  at  the  points  where  the  greatest 
strength  is  required. 

The  most  serious  defects  in  structural  tim- 
bers are  rot,  knots,  shake,  and  cross-grain. 
Sometimes  a  beam  or  timber  may  be  so  placed 
that  these  defects  will  not  seriously  interfere 
with  strength,  whereas  in  a  reverse  position, 
they  would  be  very  detrimental.  For  example, 
knots  near  the  center  or  ends  have  practically 
no  effect  upon  the  strength  of  a  beam. 

The  rate  of  growth  is  often  thought  to  have 
much  effect  upon  the  strength  of  large  timbers; 
but  they  are  so  likely  to  have  defects  of  greater 
importance  that  the  rate  of  growth  alone  cannot 
be  depended  upon  to  indicate  the  strength.  In 
the  same  way,  while  seasoning  small  sticks 

60 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER^  61 

greatly  increases  their  strength,  it  is  not  safe  to 
assume  that  large  timbers  when  seasoned  are 
much  stronger  than  when  green.  This  is  be- 
cause checks  which  develop  in  seasoning  are 
likely  to  offset  the  increase  in  strength  due  to 
the  drying  of  the  wood.  For  this  reason,  engi- 
neers do  not  ordinarily  consider  it  advisable  to 
figure  upon  a  greater  load  for  seasoned  timbers 
than  would  be  safe  for  timbers  of  the  same  size 
when  green. 

The  Forest  Service  experiments  in  seasoning 
large  timbers  lead  to  these  conclusions: 

(1)  In  general,  timber  8  by  16  inches  in  cross-section 
must  season  through,  two  entire  summers  before  it  reaches 
a  thoroughly  air-dry  condition. 

(2)  The  weight  of  thoroughly  air-seasoned  timbers  will 
vary  appreciably  during  the  year,  due  to  the  alternate 
evaporation  and  absorption  of  moisture.     This  change  in 
moisture    content    is   accompanied   by   a    corresponding 
ghrinking  and  swelling  which  tends  to  increase  the  size 
and  number  of  checks  formed  through  the  seasoning  pro- 
cess.    These  hygroscopic  changes,  however,  do  not  seem 
to  affect  the  interior  of  the  timbers. 

(3)  If  seasoning  is  started  in  the  hot  summer  months, 
the  loss  of  moisture  is  at  first  very  rapid,  even  though 
the  timber  is  protected  from  the  sun  and  wind.     The 
rapid  loss  in  weight  is  associated  with  a  marked  shrink- 
age in  the  outer  portion  of  the  timber,  which  invariably 
induces  checking.     The  loss  in  weight  in  a  stringer  8  by 
16  inches  in   cross-section   and  16  feet  long,    in  three 
months,  varies  from  40  to  60  pounds,  the  loss  being  pro- 
portional in  a  general  way  to  the  amount  of  sapwood  the 
timber  contains.     Checking  is  less  serious,  however,  when 
the  timbers  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  sapwood 
than  when  they  are  practically  all  heartwood. 


62  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

(4)  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  air-season- 
ing is  started  in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter  months. 
At  this  time  of  the  year,  the  air  is  usually  moist  enough 
to  prevent  rapid  drying  on  the  surface,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, serious  checking. 

(5)  The  absence  of  shrinkage  in  redwood  timbers  is 
very   noticeable,    although    redwood    contains    a    large 
amount  of  moisture  when  cut.     On  account  of  its  low- 
shrinkage   factor,   it   can  be   seasoned  without   serious 
checking. 

ASSOCIATION  RULES  FOR  STRUCTURAL 
TIMBERS 

Yellow  Pine 

The  rules  or  specifications  for  structural  tim- 
bers adopted  by  the  Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers 
Association  are: 

No.  1  Common  Timbers 

Sizes.  Common  Timber  shall  be  worked  to  the  fol- 
lowing: 4x4,  4x6,  6x6,  %-inch  off  side  and  edge.  Sur- 
faced 4  sides,  i/4-inch  off  each  side;  6x8  and  larger, 
S-3-S  or  S-4-S,  1,4-inch  off  each  side  surfaced. 

Rough  Timbers,  4x4  and  larger,  shall  not  be  more  than 
^-inch  scant  at  any  point  when  green,  and  be  well  manu- 
factured, with  not  less  than  three  square  edges,  and  will 
admit  sound  knots  that  do  not  occupy  more  than  one- 
third  the  cross-section  of  the  piece  or  small  defective 
knots. 

Timbers  10x10  in  size  may  have  a  2-inch  wane  on  one 
corner,  measured  on  faces,  or  its  equivalent  on  two  or 
more  corners  one-third  the  length  of  the  piece.  Larger 
sizes  may  have  proportionately  greater  defects. 

Shakes  extending  not  over  one-eighth  of  the  length  of 
the  piece  are  admissible,  and  seasoning  checks  shall  not 
be  considered  a  defect. 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  63 

Dressed  Timbers  shall  conform  in  grading  to  the  spec- 
ifications applying  to  rough  timbers  of  same  size. 

Rough  Timbers,  if  thicker  than  specified  thickness  for 
dry  or  green  stock,  may  be  dressed  to  such  standard 
thickness,  and  when  so  dressed  shall  be  considered  as 
rough  stock. 

West  Coast  Timber 

The  grades  for  structural  timbers  adopted  by 
the  West  Coast  Lumber  Manufacturers  Associ- 
ation (applying  chiefly  to  Douglas  fir)  are  as 
follows : 

Clears — Shall  be  sound  lumber  well  sawed,  one  side 
and  two  edges  free  from  knots  and  other  defects  impair- 
ing its  use  for  the  probable  purpose  intended.  Will 
allow  in  dimensions  larger  than  6  by  10  inches  pitch 
pockets  when  not  extending  through  the  piece;  light- 
colored  sap  on  corners  not  exceeding  3  inches  on  face 
and  edge,  knots  2  inches  and  less  in  diameter,  according 
to  size  of  piece,  when  on  one  face  and  one-half  of  each 
corresponding  edge,  leaving  one  face  and  upper  half  of 
each  edge  clear. 

Selects — Shall  be  sound,  strong  lumber,  well  sawed. 
Will  allow  in  sizes  over  6  by  6  inch,  knots,  not  to  exceed 
2  inches  in  diameter,  varying  according  to  the  size  of 
the  piece;  sap  on  corner  not  to  exceed  2  inches  on  both 
face  and  edge;  pitch  pockets  not  to  exceed  6  inches  in 
length.  Defects  in  all  cases  to  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  size  of  the  piece  and  its  general  quality. 

Merchantable — This  grade  shall  consist  of  sound, 
strong  lumber,  free  from  shakes,  large,  loose,  or  rotten 
knots,  and  defects  that  materially  impair  its  strength, 
well  manufactured,  and  suitable  for  good,  substantial 
constructional  purposes.  Will  allow  slight  variations  in 
sawing,  sound  knots,  pitch  pockets,  and  sap  on  corners, 
one-third  the  width  and  one-half  the  thickness,  or  its 
equivalent.  Defects  in  all  cases  to  be  considered  in  con- 


64  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

nection  with  the  size  of  the  piece  and  its  general  quality. 
In  timber  10  by  10  inches  and  over,  sap  shall  not  be  con- 
sidered a  defect.  Discolorations  through  exposure  to 
elements,  other  than  black  sap,  shall  not  be  deemed  a 
defect  excluding  lumber  from  this  grade  if  otherwise 
conforming  to  merchantable  grade. 

Common — This  grade  shall  consist  of  lumber  having 
knots,  sap,  and  other  defects  which  exclude  it  from  grad- 
ing as  merchantable,  but  of  a  quality  suitable  for  rough 
kinds  of  work. 

American  Society  for  Testing  Materials 

The  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials 
has  been  working  for  many  years  to  establish 
commercial  standards  for  all  structural  materials 
upon  a  scientific  basis.  The  specifications  which 
it  has  adopted  for  structural  timber  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

I.  Definition  of  Structural  Timber 

By  the  term  "Structural  Timber"  the  Committee 
understands  all  such  products  of  wood  in '  which  the 
strength  of  the  timber  is  the  controlling  element  in  their 
selection  and  use.  The  following  is  a  list  of  products 
which  are  recommended  for  consideration  as  structural 
timbers : 

Trestle  Timbers — Stringers,  caps,  posts,  mud  sills,  brac- 
ing, bridge  ties,  guard  rails. 

Car  Timbers — Car  framing,  including  upper  framing; 
car  sills. 

Framing  for  Building's — Posts,  mud  sills,  girders,  fram- 
ing, joists. 

Ship  Timbers — Ship  timbers,  ship  decking. 

Cross-Arms  for  Poles. 

II.  Standard  Defects 

Measurements  which  refer  to  the  diameter  of  knots  or 


Standard  Knot 


Large  Knot 


Plate  8 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Loose  Knot 


Encased  Knot 


Pith  Knot 
Plate  9 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Rotten  Knot 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  65 

holes  should  be  considered  as  referring  to  the  mean  or 
average  diameter. 

1.  Sound  Knot — A  sound  knot  is  one  which  is  solid 
across  its  face,  and  which  is  as  hard  as  the  wood  sur- 
rounding it ;  it  may  be  either  red  or  black,  and  is  so  fixed 
by  growth  or  position  that  it  will  retain  its  place  in  the 
piece. 

2.  Loose  Knot — A  loose  knot  is  one  not  firmly  held  in 
place  by  growth  or  position. 

3.  Pith  Knot — A  pith  knot  is  a  sound  knot  with  a 
pith  hole  not  more  than  14  inch  in  diameter  in  the  center. 

4.  Encased  Knot — An  encased  knot  is  one  which  is 
surrounded  wholly  or  in  part  by  bark  or  pitch.     Where 
the  encasement  is  less  than  %  of  an  inch  in  width  on 
both  sides,  not  exceeding  one-half  the  circumference  of 
the  knot,  it  shall  be  considered  a  sound  knot. 

5.  Rotten  Knot — A  rotten  knot  is  one  not  as  hard  as 
the  wood  it  is  in. 

6.  Pin  Knot — A  pin  knot  is  a  sound  knot  not  over  % 
inch  in  diameter. 

7.  Standard  Knot— A  standard  knot  is  a  sound  knot 
not  over  1^2  inches  in  diameter. 

8.  Large  Knot — A  large  knot  is  a  sound  knot  more 
than  iy2  inches  in  diameter. 

9.  Round  Knot — A  round  knot  is  one  which  is  oval 
or  circular  in  form. 

10.  Spike  Knot — A  spike  knot  is  one  sawn  in  a  length- 
wise direction;  the  mean  or  average  width  shall  be  con- 
sidered in  measuring  these  knots. 

11.  Pitch  Pockets — Pitch   pockets   are   openings  be- 
tween the  grain  of  the  wood  containing  more  or  less 
pitch   or  bark.     These   shall   be    classified   as   " small," 
"standard,"  and  "large"  pitch  pockets. 

(a)  Small  Pitch  Pocket.    A  small  pitch  pocket  is  one 
not  over  %  of  an  inch  wide. 

(b)  Standard  Pitch  Pocket.    A  standard  pitch  pocket 
is  one  not  over  %  of  an  inch  wide  or  3  inches  in  length. 


66  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

(c)  Large  Pitch  Pocket.  A  large  pitch  pocket  is  one 
over  %  of  an  inch  wide  or  over  3  inches  in  length. 

12.  Pitch  Streak — A  pitch   streak  is  a  well-defined 
accumulation  of  pitch  at  one  point  in  the  piece.     When 
not  sufficient  to  develop  a  well-defined  streak,  or  where 
the  fiber  between  grains — that  is,  the  coarse-grained  fiber, 
usually  termed  "Spring  wood" — is  not  saturated  with 
pitch,  it  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect. 

13.  Wane — Wane  is  bark,  or  the  lack  of  wood  from 
any  cause,  on  edges  of  timbers. 

14.  Shades — Shakes  are  splits  or  checks  in  timbers 
which  usually  cause  a  separation  of  the  wood  between 
annual  rings. 

15.  Rot,  Dote,  and  Red  Heart— Any  form  of  decay 
which  may  be  evident  either  as  a  dark  red  discoloration 
not  found  in  the  sound  wood,  or  the  presence  of  white 
or  red  rotten  spots,  shall  be  considered  as  a  defect. 

16.  Ring    Shake — An    opening    between    the    annual 
rings. 

17.  Through  Shake — A  shake  which  extends  between 
two  faces  of  a  timber. 

III.  Standard  Names  for  Structural  Timbers 

1.  Southern  Yellow  Pine — Under  this  heading,  two 
classes  of  timber  are  used:  (1)  Longleaf  Pine;  (2)  Short- 
leaf  Pine. 

It  is  understood  that  these  two  terms  are  descriptive 
of  quality,  rather  than  of  botanical  species.  Thus, 
"Shortleaf  Pine"  would  cover  such  species  as  are  now 
known  as  North  Carolina  pine,  loblolly  pine,  and  short- 
leaf  pine.  "Longleaf  Pine"  is  descriptive  of  quality; 
and  if  Cuban,  shortleaf,  or  loblolly  pine  is  grown  under 
such  conditions  that  it  produces  a  large  percentage  of 
hard  summer  wood,  so  as  to  be  equivalent  to  the  wood 
produced  by  the  true  longleaf,  it  would  be  covered  by 
the  term  "Longleaf  Pine." 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  67 

2.  Douglas  Fir — The  term  "Douglas  Fir"  to  cover 
the  timber  known  likewise  as  yellow  fir,  red  fir,  Western 
fir,  Washington  fir,  Oregon  or  Puget  Sound  fir  or  pine, 
norwest  and  west  coast  fir. 

3.  Norway  Pine,  to  cover  what  is  known  also  as  "Red 
Pine." 

4.  Hemlock,  to  cover  Southern  or  Eastern  hemlock — 
that  is,  hemlock  from  all  States  east  of  and  including 
Minnesota. 

5.  Western   Hemlock,    to    cover   hemlock   from    the 
Pacific  coast. 

6.  Spruce,  to  cover  Eastern  spruce — that  is,  the  spruce 
timber  coming  from  points  east  of  Minnesota. 

7.  Western  Spruce,  to  cover  the  spruce  timber  from 
the  Pacific  coast. 

8.  White  Pine,  to  cover  the  timber  which  has  hitherto 
been  known  as  white  pine,  from  Maine,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, and  Minnesota. 

9.  Idaho  White  Pine,  the  variety  of  white  pine  from 
western  Montana,  northern  Idaho,  and  eastern  Washing- 
ton. 

10.  Western  Pine,  to  cover  the  timber  sold  as  white 
pine  coming  from  Arizona,  California,  New  Mexico,  Colo- 
rado, Oregon,  and  Washington.     This  is  the  timber  some- 
times known  as  "Western  Yellow  Pine,"  or  "Ponderosa 
Pine,"  or  "California  White  Pine,"  or  "Western  White 
Pine." 

11.  Western  Larch,  to  cover  the  species  of  larch  or 
tamarack  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  coast 
regions. 

12.  Tamarack,  to  cover  the  timber  known  as  "Tama- 
rack," or  "Eastern  Tamarack,"  from  States  east  of  and 
including  Minnesota. 

13.  Redwood,  to  include  the  California  wood  usually 
known  by  that  name. 


68  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

IV.  Standard  Specifications  for  Bridge  and  Trestle 
Timbers 

(To  be  applied  to  solid  members  and  not  to  composite  members) 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Except  as  noted,  all  timber  shall  be  cut  from  sound 
trees  and  sawed  standard  size;  close-grained  and  solid; 
free  from  defects  such  as  injurious  ring  shakes  and 
crooked  grain,  unsound  knots,  knots  in  groups,  decay, 
large  pitch  pockets,  or  other  defects  that  will  materially 
impair  its  strength. 

Standard  Size  of  Sawed  Timber — Rough  timbers  when 
sawed  to  standard  size,  shall  mean  that  they  shall  not  be 
over  y±  in.  scant  from  actual  size  specified.  For  instance, 
a  12  in.  x  12  in.  shall  measure  not  less  than  11%  in.  x 
1134  in. 

Standard  Dressing  of  Sawed  Timbers — Standard  dress- 
ing means  that  not  more  than  14  in.  shall  be  allowed  for 
dressing  each  surface.  For  instance,  a  12  in.  x  12  in. 
shall,  after  dressing  four  sides,  not  measure  less  than 
Hi/2  in.  x  ll^j  in. 

STRINGERS 

No.  1.  Longleaf  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir— Shall 
show  not  less  than  80  per  cent  of  heart  on  each  of  the 
four  sides,  measured  across  the  sides  anywhere  in  the 
length  of  the  piece;  loose  knots,  or  knots  greater  than 
1^  in.  in  diameter,  will  not  be  permitted  at  points  within 
4  inches  of  the  edges  of  the  piece. 

No.  2.  Longleaf  Yellow  Pine,  Shortleaf  Pine,  Douglas 
Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock — Shall  be  square  edged,  ex- 
cept it  may  have  1  in.  wane  on  one  corner.  Knots  must 
not  exceed  in  their  largest  diameter  ^4  the  width  of  the 
face  of  the  stick  in  which  they  occur.  Ring  shakes 
extending  not  over  %  of  the  length  of  the  piece  are 
admissible. 

CAPS  AND  SILLS 

No.  1.  Longleaf  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir— Shall 
show  85  per  cent  heart  on  each  of  the  four  sides,  meas- 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  69 

ured  across  the  sides  anywhere  in  the  length  of  the  piece ; 
to  be  free  from  knots  over  2y%  in.  in  diameter;  knots 
must  not  be  in  groups. 

No.  2.  Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Yellow  Pine,  Douglas 
Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock — Shall  be  square-edged,  ex- 
cept it  may  have  1  in.  wane  on  one  corner,  or  %  in. 
wane  on  two  corners.  Knots  must  not  exceed  in  their 
largest  diameter  !/4  the  width  of  the  face  of  the  stick  in 
which  they  occur.  Ring  shakes  extending  not  over  ^ 
the  length  of  the  piece  are  admissible. 
POSTS 

No.  1.  Longleaf  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir— Shall 
show  not  less  than  75  per  cent  heart,  measured  across  the 
face  anywhere  on  the  length  of  the  piece ;  to  be  free  from 
knots  over  2yz  in.  in  diameter,  and  must  not  be  in 
groups. 

No.  2.  Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Yellow  Pine,  Douglas 
Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock — Shall  be  square-edged,  ex- 
cept it  may  have  1  in.  wane  on  one  corner,  or  yz  in. 
wane  on  two  corners.  Knots  must  not  exceed,  in  their 
largest  diameter,  y^  the  width  of  the  face  of  the  stick  in 
which  they  occur.  Ring  shakes  shall  not  extend  over 
%  of  the  length  of  the  piece. 

LONGITUDINAL  STRUTS  OR  GIRTS 

No.  1.  Longleaf  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir— Shall 
show  one  face  all  heart;  the  other  face  and  two  sides 
shall  show  not  less  than  85  per  cent  heart,  measured 
across  the  face  or  side  anywhere  in  the  piece;  to  be  free 
from  knots  1%  in.  in  diameter  and  over. 

No.  2.  Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Yellow  Pine,  Douglas 
Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock— Shall  be  square-edged  and 
sound;  to  be  free  from  knots  l*/2  in.  in  diameter  and 
over. 

LONGITUDINAL  X-BRACES,  SASH  BRACES,  AND  SWAY  BRACES 

No.  1.    Longleaf  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir— Shall 

show  not  less  than  80  per  cent  heart  on  two  faces  and 


70  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

four  square  edges;  to  be  free  from  knots  over  iy2  in.  in 
diameter. 

No.  2.  Longleaf  and  Shortleaf  Yellow  Pine,  Douglas 
Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock — Shall  be  square-edged  and 
sound;  to  be  free  from  knots  2y%  in.  in  diameter  and 
over. 

FOREST  SERVICE  RULES 

As  the  result  of  tests  upon  structural  timbers, 
the  Forest  Service  proposes  the  following 
grades : 

Grade  1 — Timbers  having  a  modulus  of  rup- 
ture over  4,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Grade  2 — Serviceable  timbers  having  a  modu- 
lus of  rupture  under  4,000  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

Culls — Timbers  having  visible  defects  which 
render  them  unfit  for  structural  purposes. 

The  practical  application  of  these  grades  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  definitions  of  terms 
and  tentative  rules  for  timbers,  based  upon  a 
long  series  of  tests: 

DEFINITIONS 

Snakes 

A  shake  is  a  separation  of  one  annual  ring  from  an- 
other, in  some  cases  only  a  few  degrees  in  length,  in 
others  entirely  separating  two  rings.  It  is  thought  that 
shakes  are  produced  in  the  living  tree  by  stresses  caused, 
by  winds  and  changes  of  temperature.  They  are  most 
common  in  woods  that  split  easily.  Shakes  are  difficult 
to  detect  in  green  timber,  and  usually  do  not  become 
visible  until  the  timber  is  at  least  partly  seasoned.  A 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  71 

shake  decreases  the  strength  of  timber  in  proportion  as 
a  plane  tangent  to  it  approaches  parallelism  with  the 
neutral  plane  in  the  beam,  since  the  more  nearly  parallel 
the  two  planes  the  smaller  is  the  area  resisting  horizontal 
shear. 

Checks 

Checks  are  radial  cracks  or  splits  produced,  almost 
without  exception,  by  uneven  shrinkage  during  season- 
ing. Occasionally,  however,  they  are  present  in  green 
timber. 

Cross-Grains 

Cross-grain  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes: 

Diagonal  Grain — In  sawing  lumber,  if  the  plane  of  the 
saw  is  not  approximately  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  log, 
the  grain  of  the  lumber  cut  is  not  parallel  to  the  edges, 
and  is  termed  diagonal. 

Spiral  Grain — In  many  trees  the  fibers  composing  each 
year's  growth  are  ranged  spirally  instead  of  vertically. 
The  greater  the  pitch  of  the  spiral,  the  greater  is  the 
defect.  Spiral  grain  usually  cannot  be  detected  from  a 
casual  inspection  of  the  piece,  since  it  does  not  show  in 
the  so-called  visible  grain  of  the  wood,  which  in  softwood 
lumber  is  nothing  but  a  sectional  view  of  the  annual  rings 
cut  longitudinally.  A  careful  inspection,  however,  of  the 
medullary  rays  on  the  tangential  or  bastard  section,  will 
invariably  reveal  spiral  grain,  since  the  rays  necessarily 
incline  with  the  spiral  direction  of  the  fibers  around  the 
trunk,  and  therefore,  in  section,  appear  obliquely  on  the 
face  of  the  timber.  Spiral  grain  may  readily  be  detected 
also  by  splitting  a  small  piece  radially. 

Burls — Burls  are  local  disturbances  in  the  grain  of  tim- 
ber, usually  associated  with  knots  or  produced  by  the 
healing  of  wounds  during  the  life  of  the  tree. 

Pitch  Pockets 

Pitch  pockets  are  cavities  between  annual  rings, 
usually  filled  with  resin.  They  are  rarely  large  enough 
to  affect  seriously  the  strength  of  structural  timbers. 


72  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Knots 

Knots  are  portions  of  branches  which  have  been  encased 
in  the  growing  trunk  of  the  tree.  In  judging  their  effect 
upon  the  strength  of  timber,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  axis  of  a  knot  always  extends  to  the  center  or 
pith  of  the  tree,  and  that  the  visible  part  of  the  knot  is 
a  section  of  a  somewhat  conical  mass  of  wood,  the  apex 
of  the  cone  being  at  the  pith  of  the  tree,  and  the  knot, 
as  a  whole,  more  or  less  intertwined  with  the  wood  sur- 
rounding it.  A  spike  knot  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  a 
whole  knot;  and  a  round  or  elliptical  knot  is  a  section, 
respectively  at  right  angles  or  at  some  oblique  angle,  to 
the  axis  of  the  knot.  Sound  knots,  as  a  rule,  are  stronger 
and  harder  than  the  wood  fiber  surrounding  them.  Their 
effect,  therefore,  upon  the  strength  of  the  timber  depends 
to  a  large  extent  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
connected  to  the  surrounding  wood  and  upon  the  degree 
of  stress  to  which  the  connecting  fibers  are  subjected.  If 
the  knots  disturb  the  grain  so  that  it  is  decidedly  oblique 
to  the  edges  of  the  timber,  the  wood  will  be  subjected 
to  stresses  in  tension  at  right  angles  to  the  grain,  the 
kind  to  which  it  offers  the  least  resistance.  In  such  cases 
early  failure  in  cross-grain  tension  almost  invariably 
results. 

Class  1  Knots — Class  1  knots  must  be  solid,  firmly 
attached  to  the  surrounding  wood,  and  must  cause  no 
marked  irregularity  in  the  grain  of  the  timber.  Small 
spike  knots  will  be  included  in  this  class. 

Class  2  Knots — Class  2  knots  must  be  solid,  but  are 
insecurely  attached  to  the  surrounding  wood,  or  associ- 
ated with  burl  or  other  irregularity  in  the  grain. 

Class  3  Knots — Class  3  knots  are  unsound  knots;  that 
is,  they  are  softer  than  the  surrounding  wood. 

Dimensions  of  Knots — The  dimension  of  a  knot  on  the 
narrow  face  of  a  timber  will  be  the  projection  of  the  knot 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  73 

on  a  line  perpendicular  to  an  edge  of  the  timber.  On 
the  wide,  or  vertical,  faces  the  smallest  diameter  of  a 
knot  is  to  be  taken  as  its  dimension. 

Small  Knots — Knots  less  than  iy2  inches  in  diameter. 

Large  Knots — Knots  iy2  inches  or  more  in  diameter. 


7cL.3    h 

i 

.*«   1         JSTo  

Vol.9 

J&l    \                         VtL.I 

I 

^ 

Fig.   7.     Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Locating 
Defects  in  Stringers 

Position  of  Defects — The  position  of  defects  is  desig- 
nated by  means  of  the  three  volumes  indicated  in  the 
diagram  (Fig.  7). 

Dense  Wood 

The  term  "dense  wood"  is  used  to  define  the  quality 
of  wood  which  is  desirable  in  timbers  subjected  to 
stresses  such  as  occur  in  frame  structures.  The  term 
applies  to  the  wood  itself,  irrespective  of  defects.  Since 
dry  weight,  which  is  the  most  accurate  index  to  the 
mechanical  properties  of  wood,  cannot  be  determined 
from  a  casual  inspection  of  the  timber,  dense — or,  in 
other  words,  comparatively  heavy — wood  will  be  de- 
fined as: 

(1)  Wood  that  shows  more  than  eight  rings  per  inch,  or  the 
rings  of  which  contain  more  than  30  per  cent  summerwood. 

(2)  Wood  which  is  resilient — that  is,  which,  when  struck 
with  a  hammer  or  similar  blunt  instrument,  gives  a  sharp, 
clear  sound,  while  the  hammer  shows  a  marked  tendency  to 
rebound  and  the  wood  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  blow. 

These  properties  are  to  be  judged  from  an  inspection 
of  the  cross-section  of  the  timber. 


74  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TENTATIVE  GRADING  RULES 

The  following  tentative  rules  are  for  the  purpose  of 
strength  classification  only,  and  do  not  take  into  account 
requirements  of  a  general  nature  such  as  conformity  to 
dimensions,  proportion  of  sap,  or  other  requirements 
made  necessary  by  peculiarities  of  certain  species. 
Grade  1  Timbers 

(a)  Must  contain  only  dense  wood. 

(b)  Must  not  have  Class  2  or  large  Class  1  knots  in  volume  1. 

(c)  Must  not  have  large  Class  2  knots  in  volume  2. 

(d)  The  aggregate  diameter  of  knots  on  any  face  within 
the  center  half  of  the  length  shall  not  exceed  the  width  of  the 
face. 

(e)  Must  not  have  shakes  or  deep  checks. 

(f)  Must  not  have  diagonal  grain  with  a  slope  greater  than 

1  inch  in  20. 

Grade  2  Timbers 

(a)  Must  contain  only  dense  wood. 

(b)  Must  not  have  large  Class  2  knots  in  volume  1. 

(c)  The  aggregate   diameter  of  knots  on  any  face  in  the 
center  half  of  the  length  shall  not  exceed  two  times  the  width 
of  the  face. 

(d)  Must  not  have  shakes  which  extend  along  an  annual 
ring  a  distance  greater  than  the  width  of  the  piece. 

Classification  of  Timbers 

As  the  result  of  the  application  of  the  pro- 
posed grades  to  the  species  tested,  the  Forest 
Service  classifies  them  in  order  of  strength  as 
follows : 

Class  1  Timbers — To  include  Grade  1  timbers  for  longleaf 
pine,  shortleaf  pine,  loblolly  pine,  and  Douglas  fir.  Shortleaf 
pine  and  loblolly  pine,  however,  generally  contain  quite  a  large 
proportion  of  sapwood,  which  is  not  nearly  so  durable  as  the 
heartwood.  Therefore  unless  these  species  were  treated  with 
a  preservative,  they  should  be  excluded  from  this  class  and 
put  into  Class  2. 

Class  2  Timbers — To  consist  of  Grade  2  longleaf  pine,  Grade 

2  Douglas  fir,  Grade  1  western  larch  and  hemlock,  and  Grade 
1  tamarack. 

Class  3  Timbers — To  include  Grade  1  redwood,  Grade  1  Nor- 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  75 

way  pine,  Grade  2  shortleaf  pine,  Grade  2  loblolly  pine,  Grade  2 
tamarack,  Grade  2  western  hemlock. 

This  classification  is  based  entirely  upon  the  strength 
developed  by  the  timbers  tested,  and  does  not  take  into 
consideration  other  properties  which  may  be  desirable 
for  any  particular  use.  For  example,  the  durability  of 
the  different  species  is  influenced  greatly  by  the  amount 
of  sapwood  which  the  timbers  contain.  Shortleaf  pine, 
loblolly  pine,  Norway  pine,  and  tamarack  usually  con- 
tain a  considerable  proportion  of  sapwood.  All  of  the 
other  species  mentioned  can  be  secured,  as  a  rule,  in 
dimension  sizes  practically  free  from  sapwood.  If,  how- 
ever, the  timbers  are  to  be  given  a  preservative  treat- 
ment, sapwood  may  be  an  advantage,  since  it  readily 
absorbs  creosote  and  other  preservatives. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The  tests  of  the  Forest  Service  upon  struc- 
tural timbers  lead  to  these  conclusions: 

(1)  The  mechanical  properties  of  timber  beams  are  depend- 
ent upon:     a,  The  quality  of  the  wood  irrespective  of  defects; 

.  b,  the  character  and  location  of  defects. 

(2)  The  mechanical  properties  of  wood  free  from  defects 
vary  directly  with  its  dry  weight.     The  relative  dry  weight  of 
the  different  pieces  of  wood  of  any  species  can  be  approximated 
by  comparing  the  proportion  of  summerwood  in  each. 

(3)  The  only  defects  which  materially  decrease  the  break- 
ing strength  of  timber  beams  are  the  more  serious  ones,  such  as 
large  knots  and  cross-grains  occurring  where  fibers  are  sub- 
jected to  comparatively  high  stresses. 

(4)  All  the  species  tested  seem  to  be  subject  to  the  same 
general  laws  regarding  the  relation  of  mechanical  to  physical 
properties. 


SEASONING  OF  TIMBER 

T"1RESHLY  cut  timber  frequently  contains 
[^  half  its  weight  of  water,  or,  stated  other- 
wise, it  contains  100  per  cent  of  water 
based  upon  the  absolutely  dry  weight  of  the 
wood.  A  large  proportion  of  this  excess  water 
must  be  removed  before  the  timber  is  in  shape 
to  use,  and  the  process  by  which  it  is  removed 
is  called  "seasoning."  Seasoning  usually  in- 
creases the  strength,  stiffness,  and  hardness  of 
timber,  greatly  reduces  its  weight,  and  renders 
it  less  likely  to  shrink  in  subsequent  usage. 
Timber  is  used  green  only  when  absolutely  nec- 
essary, since,  among  other  undesirable  quali- 
ties, it  is  more  likely  to  decay  than  is  seasoned 
timber. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  seasoning 
timber — the  natural  and  the  artificial,  or  air- 
drying  and  kiln-drying.  Air-dried  timber  may 
contain  from  15  to  30  per  cent  of  moisture,  de- 
pending upon  kind,  size,  climate,  and  other  fac- 
tors. Kiln-dried  timber  usually  contains  5  to 
10  per  cent  of  moisture;  while  in  what  is  called 
" oven-dry"  or  "bone-dry"  wood,  the  moisture 
content  is  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  absolutely 
dry  weight  of  the  wood. 

For  ordinary  structural  timber,  studding, 
sheathing,  and  the  like,  air-drying  is  sufficient. 
For  the  more  refined  uses  of  timber  where  it  is 

76 


SEASONING  OF  TIMBER  77 

re-worked  into  flooring,  finish,  furniture,  and 
other  articles,  thorough  kiln-drying  is  necessary 
to  reduce  as  much  as  possible  the  tendency  to 
swell  and  shrink  with  atmospheric  changes. 
Heavy  material  like  vehicle  stock  may  be  air- 
dried  for  two  or  three  years,  and  then  kiln-dried 
slowly  for  a  long  time  to  obtain  the  necessary 
seasoning  with  the  least  checking  and  warping. 

Thin  boards  of  any  kind  of  lumber  exhibit 
more  or  less  tendency  to  check  and  twist  dur- 
ing seasoning  processes.  This  tendency  is 
greater  in  the  hardwoods  than  in  the  softwoods, 
because  of  the  much  more  complex  structure  of 
the  hardwoods.  Commercial  practice  has,  how- 
ever, made  such  rapid  strides  in  the  last  few 
years  that  almost  any  kind  of  timber  is  now  suc- 
cessfully seasoned  by  either  natural  or  artificial 
means.  For  many  years,  cottonwood  and  gum 
were  rejected  by  sawmill  operators,  because  of 
the  general  belief  that  they  could  not  be  satis- 
factorily seasoned.  Now  the  manufacturers 
handle  these  woods  with  comparatively  little 
trouble;  and  their  products  are  popular  for  a 
multitude  of  purposes,  some  of  which  are  most 
exacting. 

Since  most  of  the  softwoods  are  very  easily 
kiln-dried  with  little  damage,  many  of  them  are 
artificially  seasoned  to  reduce  the  shipping 
weight  and  save  the  time  required  for  air-sea- 
soning. Much  of  the  Southern  yellow  pine  and 
the  Western  fir  and  cedar  go  straight  from  the 
sawmill  to  the  dry-kiln,  and  then  into  cars  for 


78  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

shipment  to  market.  As  the  hardwoods  are 
more  difficult  to  handle,  they  are  ordinarily  air- 
dried  by  the  lumber  manufacturer,  and  kiln- 
dried  at  the  factory  where  they  are  re-worked 
into  flooring,  finish,  and  other  products. 

AIR-DRYING 

Lumber  may  be  air-dried  at  the  sawmill  for  a 
few  months  to  a  year,  before  it  is  ready  to  ship 
to  consuming  points.  The  time  required  to 
reach  shipping  condition  depends  upon  weather, 
season  of  the  year,  kind  of  timber,  and  climate. 
Inch  pine  lumber  may  dry  to  shipping  condition 
in  two  months  in  the  Southwest  in  summer; 
while,  in  the  damp  climate  of  the  Gulf  Coast, 
cypress  manufacturers  may  find  it  necessary  to 
hold  lumber  in  their  yards  for  a  year  to  bring 
it  to  shipping  condition. 

Quick  and  satisfactory  air-drying  of  lumber 
is  secured  by  following  certain  principles  which 
are  recognized  by  all  experienced  lumbermen. 
These  are  to  have  solid  foundations  so  that  the 
piles  will  not  settle  out  of  shape ;  to  have  a  good 
clearance  above  ground,  and  the  piles  sufficiently 
open  to  give  free  circulation  of  air;  to  have 
enough  cross-pieces  regularly  placed  to  hold  the 
boards  straight  while  they  are  seasoning;  and 
to  give  sufficient  slope  to  the  piles,  and  have 
them  well  covered  so  that  water  will  run  off 
quickly.  A  careful  observance  of  these  princi- 
ples will  produce  straight,  bright  stock  under 


SEASONING  OF  TIMBER  79 

conditions  which  would  result  in  very  poor  stock 
if  the  lumber  were  not  properly  piled. 

There  is  a  common  theory  that  if  timber  is  cut 
in  the  winter  "while  the  sap  is  down,"  it  is  much 
superior  to  summer-cut  timber  in  strength,  re- 
sistance to  decay,  and  other  desirable  qualities. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  while  there  are  certain  ad- 
vantages in  winter  cutting,  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  to  the  notion  that  the  sap  is  "down" 
in  winter  and  "up"  in  summer.  There  is  prac- 
tically no  difference  between  winter  and  sum- 
mer in  the  amount  of  water  which  the  wood  of 
a  tree  contains.  Winter-cut  wood  seasons  best 
because  it  dries  out  more  slowly  and  evenly,  with 
less  checking  and  warping,  than  summer-cut 
wood.  It  is  also  less  liable  to  attacks  of  fungi, 
which  produce  decay  or  stain.  Since  the  hard- 
woods are  more  difficult  to  season  than  the  soft- 
woods, the  latter  are  less  likely  to  sustain  inju- 
rious effects  from  summer  cutting.  In  the  North, 
therefore,  many  operators  saw  mostly  hard- 
woods in  the  winter  and  spring,  and  softwoods 
— pine  and  hemlock — in  the  summer  and  fall. 
However,  many  lumbermen  cut  timber  the  year 
round  as  it  runs  in  the  forest,  and  experience 
no  special  difficulty  in  either  handling  or  mar- 
keting their  stock. 

A  recent  innovation  in  lumber  seasoning  for 
which  much  is  claimed  is  a  preliminary  steam- 
ing in  a  tight  cylinder  before  the  lumber  is  piled 
in  the  yard  to  air-dry  in  the  usual  fashion.  It 
is  said  that  the  steamed  lumber  air-dries  much 


V 


80  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

more  quickly  and  with  less  checking  and  warp- 
ing than  does  unsteamed  lumber.  It  is  also 
claimed  that  lumber  cut  from  logs  which  have 
been  in  the  water  for  some  time,  seasons  better 
than  lumber  cut  from  logs  which  go  straight 
from  the  stump  to  the  mill.  Both  the  steaming 
and  the  water-soaking  seem  to  dissolve  some  of 
the  contents  of  the  cells  in  the  sapwood,  and 
open  the  wood  up  so  that  it  subsequently  sea- 
sons more  uniformly. 


KILN-DRYING 

The  artificial  seasoning  of  lumber  has  made 
such  rapid  strides  in  recent  years  that  it  is  now 
claimed,  on  good  authority,  that  lumber  of  al- 
most any  kind  can  be  kiln-dried  in  compara- 
tively short  time,  with  less  damage  than 
results  from  air-drying.  However,  many  users 
insist  that  only  air-dried  lumber  is  fit  for  the 
most  exacting  purposes.  This  opinion  is  due 
very  largely  to  the  poor  work  done  by  the  early 
types  of  kilns,  which  were  neither  scientifically 
constructed  nor  properly  operated. 

The  rate  at  which  lumber  seasons  is  deter- 
mined by  three  factors — temperature,  humidity, 
and  air  circulation.  All  of  these  factors  admit 
of  regulation  in  a  kiln;  hence  it  is  fair  to  assume 
that  it  is  feasible  to  obtain  favorable  combina- 
tions of  them  which  will  rarely  be  found  under 
natural  conditions. 

Kinds  of  Kilns.  Kilns  for  drying  lumber  are 
of  three  general  types: 


Pin  Knot 


Pitch   Streak 


Spike  Knot 
;'Plate   10 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Pitch  Pocket 


A  Douglas  Fir  Forest 
Plate  11 — Lumber  and  Its 'Uses 


SEASONING  OP  TIMBER  81 

(1)  The  dry  air  kiln,  which  is  now  generally 
obsolete  because  it  produced  so  much  case-hard- 
ened and  honeycombed  lumber.* 

(2)  The  moist  air  kiln,  of  which  there  are 
several  modifications  according  to  the  methods 
used  to  regulate  circulation  and  humidity. 

(3)  The  kiln  which  uses  superheated  steam. 
Whatever  make  or  type  of  kiln  is  used,  its 

successful  operation  requires  adherence  to  the 
following  principles  according  to  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  Forest  Service: 

(1)  The  timber  should  be  heated  through  before  drying 
begins. 

(2)  The  air  should  be  very  humid  at  the  beginning  of 
the  drying  process,  and  be  made  drier  only  gradually. 

(3)  The   temperature   of  the   lumber  must  be   main- 
tained uniformly  throughout  the  entire  pile.    For  this 
an  exceedingly  large  circulation  of  air  is  essential. 

(4)  Control  of  the  drying  process  at  any  given  tem- 
perature  must  be   secured   by  controlling  the   relative 
humidity,  not  by  decreasing  the  circulation. 


*  Case-hardening  and  honeycombing  may  be  explained  thus: 
Suppose  a  block  of  wood  is  very  wet,  and  is  placed  in  a  kiln  at 
too  high  a  temperature  and  too  low  a  humidity.  The  surface 
begins  to  dry  and  tends  to  shrink,  but  is  prevented  from  doing 
so  by  the  wet  interior.  Being  plastic,  it  yields  to  this  resistance 
and  becomes  stretched.  If  not  plastic,  it  will  check  open.  As 
drying  proceeds,  the  surface  hardens  and  sets  in  an  expanded 
condition,  and  acts  as  a  strong  shell.  The  interior  now  dries 
very  slowly,  does  not  become  set,  but  shrinks;  and,  as  the 
exterior  is  already  hard,  it  opens  up  or  "honeycombs."  When 
the  exterior  once  becomes  set  or  "case-hardened,"  the  interior 
is  almost  certain  to  become  honeycombed,  whether  the  drying 
takes  places  in  the  kiln  or  a  long  time  afterward.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  moisten  the  exterior  by  steaming  or  soaking  before 
it  is  too  late.  Air-dried  material  may  also  case-harden  and 
honeycomb. 


82  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

(5)  In  general,  high  temperatures  permit  more  rapid 
drying  than  do  lower  ones.     The  higher  the  temperature 
of  the  lumber,  the  more  efficient  is  the  kiln.  It  is  believed 
that  temperatures  as  high  as  the  boiling  point  are  not 
injurious  to  most  woods,  provided  the  humidity  of  the 
surrounding  air  is  great  enough.     Some  species,  however, 
may  not  be  able  to  stand  as  high  temperatures  as  others. 

(6)  The  degree  of  dryness  attained,  where  strength  is 
the  prime  requisite,  should  not  exceed  that  at  which  the 
wood  is  to  be  used. 

Kilns  which  most  nearly  conform  to  these 
principles  of  operation  yield  a  product  which  is 
superior  to  ordinary  air-dried  lumber,  since  it 
warps,  checks,  and  stains  less  in  the  seasoning 
process,  and  will  reabsorb  from  the  air  from  15 
to  25  per  cent  less  moisture  than  air-dried  lum- 
ber. This  reduction  in  the  ability  of  the  wood 
to  absorb  moisture — or,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  its  "hygroscopicity" — is  very  important, 
because  it  means  a  reduction  in  the  extent  to 
which  the  wood  will  swell  or  shrink  under  at- 
mospheric changes. 


WOOD  PRESERVATION 

SOME  kinds  of  timber  rot  quickly  after  cut- 
ting; others  last  for  many  years,  even  un- 
der severe  conditions.  No  hard  and  fast 
line  can  be  drawn  between  woods  which  are 
durable  and  those  which  are  not,  since  much  de- 
pends upon  the  proportions  of  sapwood  and 
heartwood,  the  amount  of  seasoning,  and  the 
situation  in  which  the  timber  is  used.  Neither 
is  it  possible  to  say  that  any  one  kind  of  tim- 
ber is  superior  to  all  other  kinds  in  durability, 
or  that  the  softwoods  as  a  group  resist  decay 
better  than  the  hardwoods,  or  vice  versa. 

Among  the  woods  which  are  generally  rec- 
ognized as  possessing  much  natural  durability, 
are  the  cedars,  redwood,  cypress,  osage  orange, 
and  black  locust.  Posts,  poles,  and  ties  made 
of  these  woods  are  often  sound  after  many  years 
of  service  under  conditions  favorable  to  decay. 
On  the  other  hand,  timber  of  naturally  durable 
woods  which  is  not  seasoned  before  it  is  used,  or 
which  contains  a  very  large  amount  of  sapwood, 
may  rot  quickly;  while  properly  handled  timber 
of  the  less  durable  woods  may  last  a  long  time. 
Timber  like  maple,  gum,  or  birch  rots  quickly  if 
used  for  a  post  or  railroad  tie  without  preserva- 
tive treatment,  while,  if  seasoned  and  used  for 
house  finish,  it  lasts  indefinitely. 

83 


84  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

WHAT  DECAY  IS 

Authorities  estimate  that  the  equivalent  of 
nearly  eight  billion  board  feet  of  timber  is  an- 
nually destroyed  by  decay  in  the  United  States. 
This  consists  chiefly  of  lumber  used  for  building 
purposes  in  places  where  most  likely  to  decay, 
together  with  railroad  ties,  posts,  poles,  and 
mine  timbers. 

The  decay  of  timber  is  caused  by  minute  or- 
ganisms called  bacteria  and  fungi.  They  feed 
upon  wood,  and  change  it  as  completely  as  the 
digestive  processes  change  the  material  upon 
which  the  higher  forms  of  life  feed.  Sapwood 
is  the  most  liable  to  decay,  because  it  contains 
much  more  food  for  bacteria  and  fungi  than 
does  heartwood.  The  conditions  which  permit 
the  growth  of  decay-causing  organisms  in  wood 
are  requisite  amounts  of  heat,  air,  and  moisture. 
These  conditions  usually  exist  in  the  most  fa- 
vorable combination  at  or  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground;  so  it  is  at  these  points  that  tim- 
ber rots  most  quickly.  The  entire  absence  of 
either  heat,  air,  or  moisture,  makes  decay  im- 
possible. Timber  kept  either  absolutely  dry  or 
absolutely  wet  lasts  indefinitely,  if  not  subject 
to  wear.  Sound  timber  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Egypt  is  an  example  of  the  former;  and  sound 
timber  found  in  the  Thames,  dating  from  the 
Roman  occupation  of  England,  is  an  example 
of  the  latter. 

HOW  DECAY  IS  PREVENTED 

Decay  of  timber  is  prevented  by  treating  it 


WOOD  PRESERVATION  85 

with  antiseptics,  or  substances  which  are  poi- 
sonous to  bacteria  and  fungi.  There  are,  of 
course,  many  such  substances;  but  practical  con- 
siderations make  only  a  few  of  them  suitable 
for  commercial  use.  One  of  the  first  essentials 
of  a  good  wood  preservative  is  that  it  shall  not 
dissolve  out  when  the  wood  gets  wet  or  is 
placed  in  water.  For  this  purpose  the  best  ma- 
terial so  far  discovered  is  creosote,  a  complex 
product  of  the  distillation  of  coal  tar.  For 
comparatively  dry  situations,  zinc  chloride  is 
a  cheap  and  effective  preservative;  but  it  can- 
not be  used  for  the  treatment  of  timbers  which 
are  placed  in  water  or  in  wet  situations,  be- 
cause it  leaches  out  quickly.  Many  experiments 
have  been  and  are  being  made  with  various  oils 
and  distillation  products;  and,  no  doubt,  other 
wood  preservatives  will  be  developed. 

Paint  lengthens  the  life  of  wood  because  it 
keeps  out  moisture  and  closes  openings  through 
which  fungi  might  enter;  but  it  is  essential  that 
wood  be  well  seasoned  before  it  is  painted. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  timber-treating  in- 
dustry may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the 
first  successful  wood-preserving  plants  in  the 
United  States  were  built  about  1870.  In  1904 
there  were  35  such  plants;  and  at  present  there 
are  more  than  90,  with  an  annual  output  in 
excess  of  125  million  cubic  feet  of  treated  tim- 
ber, of  which  by  far  the  larger  portion  consists 
of  railway  ties  and  telegraph  and  telephone 
poles. 


86  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

How  Preservatives  Are  Applied 
There  are  three  general  methods  of  applying 
wood   preservatives — the    brush   method,    the 
pressure  method,  and  the  open-tank  method. 

Brush  Method.  The  brush  method  consists 
in  applying  the  preservative  with  a  brush  in 
the  same  manner  as  paint.  It  is  the  least  ef- 
fective method,  because  of  the  very  slight  pene- 
tration obtained.  It  is  useful,  however,  in  cases 
where  the  preservatives  cannot  be  forced  into 
the  wood,  in  painting  the  joints  in  timbers,  the 
bottom  of  barges,  etc. 

Pressure  Method.  In  the  pressure  process, 
the  general  features  are  practically  the  same, 
irrespective  of  the  kind  of  preservative  used. 
The  timber  to  be  treated  is  placed  upon  small 
cars,  and  run  into  large  steel  cylinders  that  are 
fitted  with  swinging  doors.  When  the  wood  is 
in  the  cylinder,  the  doors  are  bolted  fast,  and 
the  whole  made  practically  air-tight.  Saturated 
steam  is  then  forced  into  the  cylinder;  and  the 
wood  is  heated  for  five  to  fifteen  hours,  depend- 
ing chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  it  con- 
tains. It  is  claimed  that  by  this  steaming  proc- 
ess the  sap  in  the  wood  is  heated  and  all  the 
germs  of  decay  destroyed.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  steaming,  a  powerful  vacuum  is  applied, 
and  held  for  one  to  three  hours.  This  vacuum 
draws  out  the  moisture  and  sap  in  the  wood, 
and  leaves  it  in  a  condition  ready  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  preservative.  As  soon  as  the  moist- 
ure has  been  withdrawn,  a  valve  is  opened,  and 


WOOD  PRESERVATION  87 

the  preservative  material  is  permitted  to  flow 
in.  When  the  cylinder  is  completely  filled  with 
the  preservative  solution,  force  pumps  are 
started  and  pressure  applied  until  the  gages  in- 
dicate that  the  amount  of  solution  required  has 
been  absorbed  by  the  wood.  The  liquid  is  then 
run  out  of  the  cylinder,  the  doors  opened,  and 
the  treated  material  removed. 

The  pressure  method  is  the  one  in  general  use 
throughout  the  country  for  treating  timber  thor- 
oughly and  on  a  large  scale. 

Open-Tank  Method.  A  plant  for  the  treating 
of  timber  by  the  pressure  process  is  expensive, 
and  can  be  erected  only  by  firms  of  considerable 
capital.  In  order  to  devise  means  whereby  the 
smaller  sizes  of  timber,  and  especially  posts, 
can  be  cheaply  treated,  the  Forest  Service  has 
for  many  years  been  experimenting  with  what 
is  known  as  the  "  open-tank "  method. 

The  theory  of  this  method  of  treatment  is  as 
follows:  All  wood  is  of  a  more  or  less  porous 
nature,  and  contains  a  considerable  amount  of 
air.  When  placed  in  hot  oil,  for  example,  and 
heated,  a  part  of  the  air  and  moisture  contained 
in  the  wood  is  driven  out.  If  the  wood,  while 
still  hot,  is  plunged  quickly  into  a  bath  of  cold 
liquid,  the  small  amount  of  air  and  moisture 
remaining  in  the  wood  will  contract,  and  in  so 
doing  draw  in  the  liquid. 

If  it  is  desired  to  save  the  expense  of  hav- 
ing two  tanks — one  for  the  hot  and  the  other 
for  the  cold  preservative — substantially  the 


88 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


same  results  can  be  obtained  more  slowly  by 
withdrawing  the  heat  and  allowing  the  hot  tank 
to  get  cold. 

A  simple  open-tank  device  successfully  used 
by  the  Forest  Service  in  treating  fence  posts  is 
described  as  follows: 


3/0£   VIEW 

Fig.  8.     Details  of  Construction  of  Tank  for 
Treatment  of  Fence-Posts 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  rectangular  galvanized- 
iron  tank  5  feet  4  inches  long,  2  feet  3  inches  wide,  and 
3  feet  6  inches  high.  This  tank  is  set  snugly  into  a 
wooden  box  built  of  1-inch  planks  and  open  at  the  top. 
The  object  of  this  box  is  to  keep  the  tank  from  bulging 


WOOD  PRESERVATION  89 

when  filled  with  creosote,  to  protect  the  tank  from  injury, 
and  to  keep  the  creosote  from  cooling  too  rapidly.  When 
the  posts  are  treated  in  winter  or  in  cold  regions,  it  is 
best  to  build  an  additional  casing  around  the  inner  box, 
leaving  a  space  of  about  4  inches  between  them,  and 
firmly  packing  this  space  with  sawdust.  The  creosote 
will  then  seldom  solidify  over  night,  and  may  be  more 
quickly  heated. 

The  creosote  is  heated  by  fitting  a  series  of  seven 
1-inch  steam  pipes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  coupled  to 
the  boiler  of  an  engine.  The  amount  of  steam  passing 
through  the  pipes  is  controlled  by  two  valves — one  placed 
between  the  tank  and  the  boiler,  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  steam  entering  the  coils;  and  the  other  at  the  outlet 
of  the  coils,  to  control  the  pressure.  By  raising  or  lower- 
ing the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  coils,  the  creosote  can 
be  heated  to  any  temperature  desired.  An  apparatus  of 
this  kind  makes  it  possible  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  creosote  fairly  constant,  and  gives  very  satisfactory 
results.  It  can  of  course  be  used  only  when  some  kind 
of  steam  boiler  is  available.  It  costs  about  $30. 

Tanks  built  along  the  lines  indicated  give  best  results ; 
but  if  means  are  not  available  for  their  construction,  an 
old  iron  boiler  or  like  vessel  may  be  used.  The  essential 
requirements  are  that  the  creosote  shall  be  heated  in  the 
vessel  to  about  215°  F.,  and  that  the  butts  of  the  posts 
shall  be  submerged  up  to  about  6  inches  above  their 
ground  line.  In  special  eases,  where  a  thorough  top 
treatment  is  necessary,  the  vessel  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  allow  the  whole  post  to  be  submerged. 

The  principal  advantages  of  the  open-tank 
method  are  that  it  is  simple,  comparatively 
cheap,  especially  adapted  to  the  treating  of 
small-sized  material  such  as  fence-posts,  cross- 
ties,  and  mine  timbers,  and  that  with  it  prac- 


90  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

tically  .any  timber  which  has  a  fair  amount  of 
sapwood  can  be  successfuUy  treated. 

The  cost  of  an  open-tank  equipment  for  the 
treatment  of  posts,  ties,  and  small  timbers  may 
range  anywhere  from  $50  to  $500,  depending 
upon  its  completeness. 

Bluing  of  Timber 

The  sapwood  of  timber  or  lumber  cut  in  warm, 
damp  weather  is  very  likely  to  "blue"  or  stain 
while  air-drying.  This  discoloration  does  not  les- 
sen the  strength  of  the  wood;  but  it  does  damage 
the  appearance,  and  affects  the  market  value  for 
many  purposes.  Sap  stain  is  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  fungi  of  a  different  kind  from  those 
which  produce  decay,  and  is  preventable  by  com- 
paratively simple  means.  If  the  freshly  cut 
lumber  is  dipped  in  a  6  to  12  per  cent  solution  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  then  piled  in  open  fash- 
ion so  that  air  circulates  freely  among  the 
boards,  there  will  be  practically  no  bluing.  There 
are  few  bad  effects  from  the  soda  treatment,  and 
it  is  not  expensive;  so  it  has  been  adopted  by 
many  lumber  manufacturers — especially  in  the 
South,  where  staining  is  most  likely  to  occur.  A 
simple  device  carries  the  lumber  on  an  endless 
chain  through  a  tank  of  soda  solution  at  the  tail 
of  the  sawmill. 

Protection  from  Marine  Borers 

On  the  seacoast,  piling  and  dock  timbers  are 
often  destroyed  by  marine  borers  (usually  teredo 


WOOD  PRESERVATION  91 

or  shipworms),  even  more  quickly  than  timber 
on  land  is  destroyed  by  decay.  The  annual  loss 
from  this  source  is  very  great.  In  fact,  in  many 
places  it  is  almost  impossible  to  use  wooden  piles 
unless  they  are  protected  from  borers.  The  best 
method  of  giving  such  protection  is  to  apply  a 
creosote  treatment,  since  creosote  is  as  distaste- 
ful to  marine  borers  as  it  is  to  decay  producing 
fungi.  Well-creosoted  yellow  pine  piles  have 
been  known  to  give  30  years  or  more  of  service 
in  situations  where,  if  unprotected,  they  would 
have  been  destroyed  in  a  single  year.  The  fierce- 
ness of  the  attack  of  these  borers  is  indi- 
cated by  the  examples  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion (Plate  24). 

SAVINGS  DUE  TO  WOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  following,  based  on  estimates  of  the  For- 
est Service,  are  typical  examples  of  the  financial 
saving  which  may  be  made  by  wood  preserva- 
tion: 

Fence-Posts.  An  untreated  loblolly  pine  fence-post  costs 
about  8  cents,  or,  including  the  cost  of  setting,  14  cents.  Its 
length  of  life  in  this  condition  is  about  two  years.  Compound- 
ing interest  at  5  per  cent,  the  annual  charge  on  such  a  post  is 
7.53  cents;  that  is,  it  costs  7.53  cents  a  year  to  keep  such  a 
post  in  service.  If  given  a  preservative  treatment,  which  costs 
about  10  cents,  the  length  of  life  of  the  post  is  increased  to 
about  eighteen  years.  The  total  cost  of  such  post,  set,  is  then 
24  cents,  which,  compounded  at  the  above  interest  rate,  gives 
an  annual  charge  of  2.04  cents.  Thus  the  saving  due  to  treat- 
ment is  5.49  cents  a  year.  Assuming  that  there  are  200  posts 
per  mile,  there  is  a  saving  each  year  for  every  mile  of  fence  of 
a  sum  equivalent  to  the  interest  on  $219.60. 

Railroad  Ties.  A  loblolly  pine  tie  untreated  is  worth  about 
30  cents,  and  its  length  of  life  in  this  condition  is  about  five 


92  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

years.  To  this  first  cost  should  be  added  the  cost  of  laying, 
which  is  about  20  cents.  The  annual  charge,  figured  as  above, 
is  then  11.52  cents.  If  treated,  it  will  last  for  about  twelve 
years.  Its  cost  of  treatment  is  about  35  cents.  A  treated  tie 
in  the  track,  therefore,  costs  about  85  cents.  Compounded  at 
6  per  cent,  as  in  the  above  example,  the  annual  charge  is  9.48 
cents.  The  saving  per  year  is  therefore  2.04  cents  per  tie. 
Assuming  2,880  ties  per  mile  of  track,  the  saving  due  to  treat- 
ment alone  amounts  to  $58.75  per  mile,  which  corresponds  to 
an  investment  of  $1,175  per  mile. 

Poles.  Assuming  that  the  cost  of  an  untreated  oldfield  or 
loblolly  pine  pole,  including  hauling  and  setting,  is  $5,  and  that 
it  lasts  five  years — a  fair  estimate  for  many  portions  of  the 
United  States — the  annual  charge,  compounding  interest  at  5 
per  cent,  amounts  to  $1.15.  In  other  words,  it  costs  the  owner 
$1.15  a  year  for  every  such  pole  in  his  lines.  This  corresponds 
to  a  capital  of  $23  invested  at  5  per  cent  interest,  or,  for  a 
mile  of  40  poles,  to  $920.  Again,  assuming  that  the  butt  of 
such  a  pole  can  be  treated  for  $1,  the  first  cost  of  the  pole,  set 
in  the  ground,  is  $6.  The  treatment  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  secure  a  service  from  the  pole  of  twenty  years,  instead 
of  five  years  when  untreated.  Thus  the  annual  charge  on  the 
treated  pole,  with  the  same  rate  of  compound  interest,  is  only 
$0.48  per  pole,  which  corresponds  to  an  investment  of  $9.60 — 
or  $384  per  mile,  as  compared  with  the  $920  per  mile  in  the 
other  case.  Thus,  during  the  life  of  the  treated  pole,  a  yearly 
saving  of  the  interest  on  $536  will  be  effected  for  every  mile 
of  line. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  of  the  long  life 
of  creosoted  wood.  Even  in  this  country,  there 
are  many  examples  of  poles  and  other  timbers 
creosoted  20  and  even  30  years  ago,  which  to- 
day are  apparently  as  sound  as  when  first  set 
in  the  ground.  In  Europe,  where  wood  preser- 
vation is  an  older  industry,  the  results  are  still 
more  marked.  There  have  been  failures;  but 
in  every  instance  they  can  be  traced  to  incom- 
petent or  fraudulent  work,  insufficient  impreg- 
nation, improper  preparation  of  the  timber,  or 
some  similar  cause. 


PAINTS  AND  STAINF 

PAINTS  and  stains  are  used  for  two  pur- 
poses— first,  to  preserve  timber;  and  sec- 
ond, to  secure  decorative  effects.    Paint 
acts  as  a  wood  preservative  because  it  closes  the 
openings  in  the  wood  and  prevents  the  entrance 
of  moisture  and  decay-producing  organisms.    A 
thoroughly  seasoned  piece  of  wood  will  last  in- 
definitely if  kept  well  painted. 

The  general  distinction  between  paints  and 
stains  is  that  a  paint  is  an  opaque  covering 
which  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  conceals  the 
natural  appearance  of  the  surface  to  which  it  is 
applied.  A  stain  or  varnish  on  the  other  hand, 
either  brings  out  more  strongly  the  natural  ap- 
pearance of  the  wood,  or  modifies  it  to  a  degree 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  stain  with- 
out obliterating  the  natural  figure.  Paints  are 
more  largely  used  for  exteriors,  where  protec- 
tion is  the  chief  object;  and  stains  for  interiors, 
where  decorative  features  are  the  main  consid- 
eration, although  paints  are  also  much  used  for 
interior  work. 

PAINTS 

Paint  is  made  by  mixing  and  grinding  cer- 
tain solid  substances  in  linseed  oil  or  other 
liquids.  The  solids  are  termed  "pigments,"  and 
the  liquid  in  which  they  are  ground  is  called  the 

93 


94  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

" vehicle."  To  these  are  added  a  wide  variety 
of  colored  pigments  if  colored  paints  are  de- 
sired. 

The  most  common  and  the  best  pigments  are 
white  lead  and  zinc  oxide;  and  the  most  useful 
vehicle,  linseed  oil — these  forming  the  basis  of 
nearly  all  the  best  paints.  Turpentine  is  gen- 
erally added  to  paint  to  make  it  more  fluid,  and 
hence  easier  to  spread.  Several  substances 
called  " driers,"  usually  lead  or  manganese  salts 
dissolved  in  oil  or  turepntine,  are  also  used  with 
paint  to  make  it  dry  more  rapidly.  Colored 
paints  made  upon  a  white  lead  or  zinc  white 
base  are  most  serviceable,  and  last  longer  than 
pure  white  paints. 

A  number  of  important  points  must  be  ob- 
served, or  good  results  will  not  be  secured  in 
painting,  no  matter  how  good  the  paint  may 
be.  In  the  first  place,  the  surface  to  be  painted 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dry;  and,  if 
it  has  been  painted  previously,  every  bit  of  old, 
loose  paint  should  be  completely  removed.  All 
nail  holes  and  cracks  should  be  well  filled  with 
pure  whiting  and  linseed  oil  putty.  Knots  or 
sappy  places  in  the  wood  should  be  coated  with 
some  material  which  will  prevent  any  matter  in 
the  wood  from  exuding  and  causing  blisters. 
The  best  coating  for  this  purpose  is  pure  orange 
shellac.  Paint  should  always  be  applied  in  thin 
coats  well  distributed.  Three  thin  coats  of  paint 
will  give  much  more  wear  than  two  heavy  coats, 
although  they  require  less  material.  Moreover, 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  95 

ample  time  should  be  allowed  between  coats,  for 
thorough  drying.  Autumn  is  usually  consid- 
ered the  best  season  of  the  year  for  painting,  be- 
cause of  slower  drying  and  less  likelihood  of 
blisters  forming  in  the  hot  sun;  but  with  propel* 
care,  good  exterior  painting  can  be  done  at  any 
time  of  the  year. 

STAINS 

The  finishing  of  interior  woodwork,  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  finer  woods,  calls  for  good  knowl- 
edge of  materials  and  careful  workmanship.  All 
high-class  jobs  of  this  sort  require  several  ap- 
plications and  manipulations.  Moreover,  the 
finishing  must  be  varied  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  wood  used.  The  more  porous  or 
open-grained  woods  are  usually  given  a  paste 
filler  carrying  some  color  before  stains  are  ap- 
plied, while  the  less  porous  or  close-grained 
woods  can  be  brought  to  a  state  of  fine  finish 
without  the  use  of  fillers. 

Wood  finishers  usually  classify  oak,  walnut, 
ash,  butternut,  chestnut,  and  mahogany  as  open- 
grained  woods  with  which  a  paste  filler  is  advis- 
able for  a  fine  finish;  while  in  the  class  of  close- 
grained  woods,  where  such  a  filler  is  not  neces- 
sary although  sometimes  used,  they  put  birch, 
cherry,  maple,  Circassian  walnut,  gum,  white 
and  yellow  pine,  basswood,  spruce,  fir,  redwood, 
cedar,  and  yellow  poplar. 

Stains  are  usually  designated  as  " spirit," 
"oil,"  or  " water"  stains,  depending  upon  the 


96  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

vehicle  in  which  the  colors  are  mixed.  Spirit 
stains  are  usually  made  with  alcohol.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  alcohol  evaporates  so  quickly 
that  it  is  impossible  to  apply  spirit  stains  evenly 
on  a  large  surface.  Oil  stains  are  used  most 
largely  on  close-grained  woods,  and  give  a 
smooth  finish  with  excellent  effect,  but  are  said 
to  be  somewhat  less  transparent  than  water 
stains.  The  users  of  water  stains  claim  that  they 
produce  clear,  transparent  colors,  and  that  they 
can  be  evenly  and  quickly  applied  on  all  kinds 
of  wood,  and  also  are  susceptible  to  any  subse- 
quent method  of  finishing. 

After  the  wood  is  stained,  the  next  step  is  the 
application  of  a  finishing  coat  or  varnish  to  pre- 
serve the  stain.  The  number  of  coats  of  var- 
nish applied  depends  upon  the  fineness  of  finish 
desired.  It  may  be  two  or  three  on  woodwork, 
or  a  large  number  on  a  high-class  article  like  a 
piano  case.  Finishes  may  be  gloss  finishes, 
rubbed  finishes,  or  rubbed  and  polished  finishes, 
depending  upon  the  manner  in  which  applied. 
Moreover,  there  are  flat  finishes  which  produce 
the  effect  of  a  mission  or  rubbed  finish  without 
rubbing,  and  so  are  often  used  at  a  material 
saving  in  cost. 

In  the  finishing  of  interior  woodwork,  it  is  es- 
pecially important  that  the  surface  be  abso- 
lutely clean  and  dry.  It  is  also  necessary  that 
the  room  in  which  varnish  is  used  be  kept  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  a  temperature  of  70° ;  for 
if  it  is  cold,  the  varnish  will  not  set  properly. 


Dense  Stand  of  Longleaf  Pine 
Plate   12 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Second-Growth  White  Pin< 
Plate  13 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


-Trees  50  to  60  Years  Old 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  97 

There  are  many  manufacturers  of  reliable 
paints  and  stains  of  all  kinds,  who  will  promptly 
supply  samples  of  their  products  upon  applica- 
tion. 

FLOOR  FINISHES 

One  of  the  most  notable  developments  of  lum- 
ber manufacture  in  recent  years  has  been  the 
production  of  flooring  materials  of  great  service- 
ability from  many  different  woods,  the  most 
prominent  of  which  are  maple,  beech,  birch,  oak, 
edge-grain  yellow  pine,  and  Douglas  fir.  The 
use  of  such  floors  has  become  so  popular  and 
widespread  that  it  is  worth  while  to  quote  from 
Radford's  "Estimating  and  Contracting"  as 
follows,  upon  the  finishing  of  floors: 

"The  first  thing  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  a  good 
job  of  floor  finishing,  is  to  get  a  perfectly  smooth  surface. 
Until  recently  the  only  way  to  do  this  was  the  tedious, 
back-breaking  method  of  planing  and  scraping,  the  lat- 
ter being  done  usually  with  the  edge  of  a  freshly  cut 
piece  of  glass.  When  the  cutting  edge  wears  down,  a 
fresh  piece  must  be  taken.  Sandpaper,  bent  over  a  flat 
wooden  block,  is  also  used  to  cut  down  any  roughness 
or  raised  grain.  Steel  wool  is  preferable  for  this  pur- 
pose, on  account  of  the  greater  rapidity  with  which  it 
cuts.  While  this  method  is  still  very  generally  practiced, 
modern  invention  has  come  to  the  aid  of  the  floor  fin- 
isher and  has  produced  a  planing  machine  or  surfacer 
that  is  pushed  across  the  floor  like  a  lawn  mower. 

"The  first  operation  is  filling  the  wood.  Oak  and  other 
open-grained  woods  require  filling  with  a  paste  filler; 
and  while  many  painters  laugh  at  the  idea  of  a  paste 
filler  upon  such  woods  as  yellow  pine  and  maple,  experi- 
enced floor  finishers  say  that  a  better  job  can  be  done 


98  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

by  using  paste  filler  as  a  surf acer.  The  method  of  using 
is  to  apply  the  filler  to  a  strip,  say  six  or  eight  boards 
wide,  running  the  entire  length  of  the  room.  Use  a 
short,  stiff  brush,  and  apply  across  the  grain.  By  the 
time  this  strip  has  been  completed,  the  filler  will  prob- 
ably have  set  sufficiently  to  rub.  It  must  not  be  rubbed 
before  setting,  or  it  will  be  rubbed  off  the  wood;  nor 
must  it  be  allowed  to  set  too  hard,  or  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  rub  it  at  all  or  even  to  scrape  off  the  filler. 
When  the  strip  has  set  just  enough,  it  must  be  rubbed 
well  into  the  grain  of  the  wood.  After  the  filler  has 
been  thoroughly  rubbed,  any  surplus  material  must  be 
carefully  wiped  off  with  a  soft  rag.  Before  anything 
further  can  be  done,  the  filler  must  be  given  time  to  dry 
— not  less  than  24  hours,  and  preferably  two  days. 

"If  the  natural  color  of  the  floor  boards  is  not  satis- 
factory, they  should  be  stained  before  filling;  and  the 
filler  should  be  colored  with  pigment  ground  in  oil,  to 
bring  it  to  the  same  color  tone. 

"If  there  are  cracks  or  nail-holes  in  the  floor,  they 
must  next  be  filled,  in  order  to  make  a  smooth  and  per- 
fectly uniform  surface.  This  filling  may  be  done  by  using 
a  pure  whiting  and  linseed  oil  putty,  tinted  to  match  the 
floor  boards;  or  it  may  be  done  better  with  a  whiting 
and  white  lead  putty  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  white 
lead  in  oil  with  two  or  three  parts  of  bolted  whiting  and 
enough  coach  varnish  to  make  a  stiff  paste.  This  putty 
will  resist  moisture ;  and,  when  dry  and  hard,  it  may  be 
sandpapered  or  rubbed.  For  large  cracks,  an  excellent 
unshrinkable  putty  can  be  made  by  soaking  blotting 
paper  in  boiling  water  until  it  forms  a  pulp,  then  mixing 
it  with  glue  dissolved  in  water.  To  this,  bolted  whiting 
is  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  a  fairly  stiff 
paste,  and  thoroughly  kneaded.  This  paste  must  be 
pressed  into  the  cracks  and  smoothed  off  with  a  putty 
knife. 

"For  those  who  do  not  care  to  make  their  own  putty, 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  99 

there  are  excellent  prepared  crack-fillers  on  the  market. 

"Wax  Finish.  By  far  the  best  material  for  finishing 
hardwood  floors  is  wax,  although  this  involves  a  little 
more  trouble  to  keep  in  good  condition.  It  gives  a 
smooth,  satiny  luster,  without  the  glaring  effect  of  new 
varnish,  and  is  not  marred  by  heel-prints  such  as  varnish 
is  subject  to.  When  wax  grows  dim,  it  can  readily  be 
polished  again. 

./"Some  painters  advocate  the  application  of  the  wax 
/ '  directly  upon  the  paste  filler ;  but  the  best  practice  is  first 
to  give  one  or  two  thin  coats  of  pure  shellac  varnish. 
Where  a  slight  darkening  of  the  tone  of  the  wood  is  no 
objection,  orange  or  brown  shellac  is  preferable  to  the 
bleached,  since  it  is  stronger.  Shellac  should  be  cut  with 
grain  alcohol,  and  not  with  wood  alcohol.  It  is  espe- 
cially adapted  where  a  hard  and  quick-drying  undercoat 
is  required.  On  a  close-grained  wood  where  a  paste  filler 
has  not  been  used,  either  a  thin  coat  of  a  first-class  liquid 
filler,  or  a  coat  of  one  part  of  linseed  oil  to  which  from 
five  to  ten  parts  of  turpentine  have  been  added,  should 
be  given  before  applying  the  shellac.  Unless  there  is  an 
underrating  of  some  kind,  it  is  very  difficult  to  apply 
the  shellac  so  that  it  does  not  show  the  lap.  Even  then 
it  requires  skill  and  rapidity  of  work.  In  shellacing  a 
floor,  the  plan  of  following  down  a  space  one  or  two 
boards  wide  should  always  be  followed.  The  shellac 
coat  should  be  put  on  before  the  oil  or  liquid  filler  coat 
is  absolutely  dry. 

"After  shellac  has  become  dry,  the  wax,  in  paste  form, 
is  applied  with  a  rag  or  a  brush,  and,  after  a  short  time, 
is  brought  to  a  polish  by  means  of  a  weighted  brush  or 
by  rubbing  with  a  cloth.  Only  a  very  thin  coat  of  wax 
is  necessary,  a  very  little  more  being  occasionally  added. 

"Quite  a  large  number  of  specially  prepared  floor-pol- 
ishing waxes  are  on  the  market,  and  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  a  material  of  this  kind  that  will  give  a  hard 
polish  and  will  not  remain  soft  and  sticky.  It  was  the 


100  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

softness  of  the  old-fashioned  beeswax  and  turpentine  that 
caused  the  almost  endless  labor  needed  to  keep  floors  in 
perfect  condition.  Modern  wax  finishes  are  made  by 
combining  beeswax  or  paraffine  with  some  of  the  fossil 
waxes,  or  from  the  latter  alone,  giving  a  much  harder 
surface.  In  general,  the  wax  which  has  the  highest  melt- 
ing point  is  best  for  the  manufacture  of  floor  waxes, 
because  it  is  the  hardest  after  application.  Carnauba 
wax  has  a  high  melting  point  (185°  F.),  and  may  be 
used  alone  as  a  floor  wax  by  melting  it  in  a  suitable 
kettle  and  thinning  it  with  spirits  of  turpentine  so  that, 
in  cooling,  it  has  the  consistency  of  soft  taFow.  In  this 
condition  it  can  be  applied  with  a  large  brush. 

"Two  coats  of  wax  on  a  new  floor  are  better  than  one 
— the  first  coat  being  required  to  fill  up,  and  the  second 
to  give  luster — although,  if  sufficient  polish  is  obtained 
by  the  first  coat,  the  second  will  be  found  unnecessary. 

"The  preparation  of  wax  finish  is  attended  with  so 
much  risk  from  fire  that  it  should  be  undertaken  only 
over  a  water  bath.  Even  then,  it  is  wiser  for  the  ordi- 
nary painter  to  buy  the  prepared  wax  than  to  undertake 
to  make  it. 

"Varnish  Finish.  A  large  number  of  floor  varnishes 
are  on  the  market.  These  varnishes,  as  a  rule,  are 
designed  to  harden  over  night.  The  surface  should  be 
prepared  in  the  same  way  as  for  wax  finish;  and  after 
the  filler  is  bone-dry,  two  or  more  coats  of  varnish  should 
be  applied.  If  desired,  the  varnish  may  be  rubbed  to  a 
dead  surface  with  pumice  stone  and  kerosene.  Practi- 
cally every  varnish  will  show  heel  marks,  and  will  mar 
white  by  use.  When  the  surface  becomes  worn,  the  old 
varnish  requires  to  be  either  scraped  off  or  removed  with 
a  varnish  remover  before  a  new  coat  of  varnish  can  be 
applied ;  while,  with  a  wax,  all  that  is  necessary  to  restore 
the  surface  to  a  good  condition  is  to  apply  a  little  more 
wax  and  use  the  polishing  brush. 

"When  a  waxed  floor  gets  dirty  and  shabby,  it  can 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  101 

be  cleaned  down  to  the  shellac  with  turpentine,  and 
rewaxed  at  a  small  cost.  It  is  well  to  give  a  special 
caution  against  using  a  wax  finish  over  a  varnish  coating, 
since  the  wax  will  soften  up  the  varnish  and  cause 
trouble. 

' '  Oil  Finish.  A  very  satisfactory  finish  for  rooms  that 
have  hard  wear,  such  as  schoolrooms,  stores,  and  rooms 
in  public  buildings,  is  first  to  fill  the  floors,  and  then  give 
them  two  thin  coats  of  shellac,  finally  applying  a  very 
thin  coat  of  paraffine  oil,  or  of  a  rubbing  and  polishing 
oil,  with  a  brush  or  a  rag,  and  thoroughly  wiping  off 
any  surplus  remaining  on  the  surface.  This  oiling  should 
be  repeated  every  few  days,  according  to  the  amount  of 
wear  that  the  floor  gets.  This  same  treatment  is  spe- 
cially adapted  for  kitchen  floors,  dining  rooms,  and  other 
floors  in  private  houses  that  are  subject  to  hard  wear.  It 
is  also  well  adapted  to  the  cheaper  floors,  such  as  yellow 
pine  or  spruce.  If  mud  has  been  tracked  on  the  floor,  it 
should  first  be  mopped  up  with  water,  and  this  should  be 
allowed  to  dry  before  oiling.  One  advantage  of  the  oiled 
floor  is  that  it  is  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  the  oiling  is 
finished.  This  same  method  of  oiling  can  be  used  over 
a  varnished  floor,  and  will  preserve  it  from  marring. 

"Besides  paraffine  oil,  crude  petroleum  may  be  used, 
or  any  of  the  so-called  polishing  oils  or  furniture  pol- 
ishes. Such  oils  can  be  made  from  machine  oil  or  sweet 
oil  and  oil  of  lemon. 

"Painted  Floors.  A  floor  finish  not  in  such  general 
use  as  it  deserves,  is  the  painted  floor.  Paint  has  the 
advantage  of  hiding  inferior  floor  boards  and  being  cheap. 
There  are  a  number  of  special  floor  paints  on  the  mar- 
ket for  use  on  kitchen  floors  and  other  rooms  having  a 
good  deal  of  wear. 

"A  painted  floor  can  be  made  quite  ornamental  by  the 
use  of  a  stenciled  border,  which  should  be  put  on  before 
the  varnish  coats.  The  most  appropriate  designs  are 
those  which  resemble  mosaic  work  in  their  effects,  or 


102  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

interlacing  strap  work.  When  the  colors  are  properly 
chosen,  care  being  taken  to  avoid  glaring  contrasts,  a 
painted  and  stenciled  floor  is  fully  as  effective  as  a  hard- 
wood floor;  and  it  possesses  one  distinct  advantage  in 
that  it  can  be  adapted  to  any  decorative  color  scheme 
for  the  room. 

"A  floor  that  is  grained,  especially  one  grained  in  oak, 
has  one  of  the  most  durable  finishes  that  can  be  given, 
requiring  very  little  attention  other  than  wiping  up  with 
damp  cloth  or  mop.  If  well  done,  it  is  fully  as  effective 
as  a  hardwood  floor." 

SHINGLE  STAINS 

The  popularity  of  bungalows  and  drop  shingle 
construction  has  greatly  increased  the  use  of 
shingle  stains.  There  are  many  such  stains  on 
the  market,  of  good  quality,  made  by  various 
manufacturers.  Several  of  them  contain  some 
creosote,  which  incerases  their  preservative 
power;  while  any  desired  effect  is  produced  by 
the  addition  of  coloring  matter.  Shingles  are 
often  dipped  in  stains  before  laying.  This  is  the 
best  method  of  application,  since  the  stain  or 
preservative  thus  reaches  all  parts  of  the  sur- 
face, and  also  penetrates  any  openings  in  the 
shingles.  A  large  number  of  shingles  can  be 
dipped  in  a  short  time,  so  that  the  cost  is  not 
great,  while  both  the  lasting  qualities  of  the 
shingle  and  the  appearance  are  greatly  im- 
proved. (For  specifications  for  staining  shin- 
gles, see  page  108.) 

If  a  shingle  stain  which  has  a  lead  base  is  de- 
sired, the  following  preparation  published  by 
Radford  will  be  found  useful: 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  103 

A  good  shingle  stain  may  be  made  by  using  pure  white 
lead  (in  oil),  strong  chrome  green  (in  oil),  raw  umber, 
and  a  little  lampblack,  mixed  until  the  desired  shade 
is  reached,  thinning  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a  little 
japan.  To  1  quart  of  this  paint,  add,  for  dipping  pur- 
poses, 5  quarts  creosote  oil;  and  for  application  with 
the  brush,  mix  1  quart  of  the  oil  paint  and  3  quarts  of 
creosote  oil.  A  common  estimate  is  that  3%  gallons  of 
stain  will  be  sufficient  for  1,000  shingles,  dipping  two- 
thirds  of  the  shingle. 

The  following  estimate  of  the  covering  ca- 
pacity of  shingle  stain  is  based  on  the  average 
cedar  shingle,  size  4  by  16  in. 

One  gallon  of  stain  will  cover  150  sq.  ft.  one  brush 
coat,  or  100  sq.  ft.  two  brush  coats. 

Two  and  one-half  to  3%  gallons  of  stain  will  dip  1,000 
shingles,  two-thirds  of  length  of  shingle  to  be  dipped. 

Three  gallons  of  stain  will  dip  and  brush-coat  1,000 
shingles  in  some  eases. 

The  covering  capacity  of  creosote  bleaching  oil  is 
about  one-fifth  less  than  the  above  figures. 

The  protection  of  shingles  from  fire  by  means 
of  special  paints  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"Fire  Besistance." 

ARCHITECTURAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR 
PAINTING,  STAINING,  ETC. 

Architectural  specifications  for  the  painting, 
enameling,  staining,  and  finishing  of  woods  for 
first-class  and  medium  grades  of  work,  prepared 
by  Mr.  John  Dewar  at  the  request  of  the  Master 
House  Painters  and  Decorators  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, were  endorsed  by  that  Association,  January 
15,  1913.  The  essential  portions  of  these  speci- 
fications are  quoted  as  follows: 


104  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Painting  New  Exterior  Woodwork 

Medium — All  knots,  rosin,  and  sap  portions  shall  be 
properly  shellaced.  Paint  one  coat  white  priming 
brushed  well  into  the  wood,  after  which  all  nail-holes, 
open  joints,  and  other  imperfections  shall  be  closed  solid 
with  putty  containing  20  per  cent  white  lead;  then  ap- 
ply two  coats  of  paint,  colors  to  be  selected.  Each  coat 
must  be  thoroughly  dry  before  the  application  of  an- 
other. Paint  the  back  of  all  window  and  door  frames 
one  coat  before  setting,  sash  runners  of  window  frames 
to  receive  two  coats  of  oil,  stained  if  required,  the  last 
coat  to  be  applied  at  completion.  No  paint  to  be  ap- 
plied during  wet  or  foggy  weather.  (See  Note  1,  be- 
low.) 

First-Class — Woodwork  should  be  painted  as  above 
specified,  using  one  additional  coat. 

NOTE  1 — All  authorities  agree  that  pure  raw  lin- 
seed oil  and  pure  spirits  of  turpentine  are  the  best  ve- 
hicles for  exterior  paints.  The  vehicle  of  first  or  prim- 
ing coat  on  new  wood,  also  second  coat,  should  consist  of 
80  per  cent  pure  raw  linseed  oil  and  20  per  cent  pure 
spirits  of  turpentine,  the  final  coat  90  per  cent  pure  raw 
linseed  oil  and  10  per  cent  pure  spirits  of  turpentine, 
all  to  contain  necessary  driers.  When  four  coats  are 
used,  the  first,  second,  and  third  coats  should  be  com- 
posed of  80  per  cent  oil  and  20  per  cent  turpentine,  the 
fourth  coat  90  per  cent  oil  and  10  per  cent  turpentine. 

There  exists  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  best 
paint  pigment  or  pigments  in  combination.  How  neces- 
sary it  should  be  that  the  construction  of  a  paint  film 
be  as  near  perfect  as  possible.  The  necessity  of  this 
should  be  apparent  to  us  all,  especially  when  we  are 
confronted  with  the  fact  that  "the  average  paint  coating 
is  only  three  one-thousands  of  an  inch  thick,  and  yet  this 
thin  coating  is  required  to  withstand  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  underlying  surface,  abrasion  or  wear 
from  storms  of  dust  and  sand,  or  rain,  sleet,  hail,  and 
absorbing,  drawing,  and  expanding  influences  of  the 
summer's  sun,  and  contraction  from  the  cold  of  win- 
ter. It  must  have  both  hardness,  to  withstand  to  a  rea- 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  105 

sonable  extent  this  surface  wear,  and  yet  enough  elas- 
ticity to  meet  internal  strain  and  to  conform  to  changes 
in  the  underlying  surface;  and  it  must  penetrate  and 
cling  to  the  surface  upon  which  it  is  applied.  It  must 
also  retard  and  prevent  from  access  to  the  underlying 
surface  both  the  moisture  and  atmospheric  gases  which 
cause  decay;"  and,  if  possessing  the  virtues  of  a  good 
paint,  it  must  in  the  course  of  time,  when  repainting  be- 
comes necessary,  present  a  suitable  foundation  for  the 
new  paint  coatings. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  a  white  or  tinted  base 
paint  containing  about  75  per  cent  white  lead  and  25  per 
cent  zinc  oxide  is  of  a  high  standard.  When  used  near 
or  at  the  sea  shore,  also  in  the  Southern  States,  it  can 
be  improved  by  a  change  to  the  following:  60  per  cent 
white  lead  and  40  per  cent  zinc  oxide.  The  purpose  in 
combining  these  two  best  paint  pigments  are,  that  the 
one  makes  strong  the  weak  points  of  the  other,  giving  us 
an  ideal  paint  coating.  The  zinc  makes  the  film  stronger 
and  harder,  also  practically  non-absorbent  by  reason  of 
these  qualities,  and,  with  its  fineness  of  texture,  fills  up 
the  voids  caused  by  the  coarser  pigment.  After  a  most 
thorough  and  practical  personal  investigation  as  to  re- 
sults, I  recommended  the  above  combination,  having  used 
them  in  my  practice  for  years.  I  have  the  manufacturer 
combine  and  grind  the  two  pigments  together,  thereby 
getting  a  thorough  amalgamation. 

When  the  result  required  is  a  white  or  color-tinted 
paint,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  same  percentage  of  dif- 
ferent basic  pigments  and  coloring  matter  in  all  of  the 
coats,  on  account  of  obtaining  a  uniform  expansion  and 
contraction,  solidity  of  color,  etc. 

When  "Prepared  Mixed  Paints"  in  paste  form  are 
used,  the  limit  of  inert  pigments  should  be  15  per  cent. 
This  percentage  may  be  composed  of  barytes,  silica,  or 
asbestine,  or  a  mixture  of  such  pigments.  To  this  amount 
there  should  be  no  objection,  as,  up  to  that  extent,  these 
inerts  have  their  values  as  part  of  a  good  paint  film ;  but 
vehicle  proportions  as  set  forth  should  be  followed. 

The  use  of  asbestine  is  principally  to  hold  up  in  sus- 
pension the  heavier  pigments  in  the  paint,  its  fluffy  and 
rod-like  form  being  valuable  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
also  said  to  act  as  a  reinforcing  pigment  in  the  same  way 
that  iron  bars  act  in  reinforcing  concrete  structures. 


106  PAINTS  AND  STAINS 

Straight  white  lead  makes  a  splendid  primer.  Ochre 
should  never  be  used,  nor  boiled  linseed  oil  for  under- 
coatings.  When  the  color  of  the  finishing  coat  is  re- 
quired to  be  a  strong  solid  color  such  as  green,  red,  etc., 
by  using  these  strong  colored  paints  from  the  foundation 
up,  you  will  not  get  a  solidity  of  body ;  therefore  I  would 
suggest  the  use  of  a  strong  tinted  white  base  for  under- 
coatings. 

In  the  painting  of  cypress  and  Southern  yellow  pine, 
the  vehicle  in  the  priming  coat,  and  priming  coat  only, 
should  be  40  per  cent  of  160  degree  benzole,  10  per 
cent  pure  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  50  per  cent  pure 
raw  linseed  oil,  proceeding  with  the  subsequent  coat  as 
specified  above.  The  character  of  these  woods  is  such 
as  will  not  permit  of  the  penetration  of  paint  made  by 
the  usual  vehicle  practice.  With  the  turpentine  and  the 
addition  of  benzole,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  pene- 
trating solvents  of  rosin,  gums,  and  grease  known,  they 
carry  the  oil  and  pigment,  when  well  brushed  out,  into 
the  wood;  and  it  there  finds  a  lodgment,  forming  a  sub- 
stantial and  permanent  foundation  for  the  subsequent 
coatings.  The  benzole,  like  turpentine,  after  perform- 
ing its  mission,  evaporates  entirely,  leaving  no  residue. 

From  the  beginning  to  the  finish  of  a  first-class  resi- 
dence, or  other  important  operation,  considerable  time 
may  elapse,  not  infrequently  a  year  or  more,  therefore 
a  necessity  for  the  additional  or  fourth  coat  of  paint. 
I  would  recommend  for  their  distribution,  after  the  prim- 
ing or  first  coat  and  the  necessary  puttying  up,  that 
the  second  coat  be  applied,  the  third  and  fourth  coats 
about  the  time  of  completion  of  building.  Another  sub- 
stantial reason  for  the  fourth  coat  is  that  the  householder, 
realizing  that  he  has  a  new  residence,  is  usually  less 
watchful  as  to  any  necessity  for  repainting  for  a  term 
of  years. 

With  the  application  of  the  priming  coat  when  the 
work  is  first  put  in  place,  followed  by  the  two  coats 
probably  six  months  or  a  year  after,  such  a  condition 
will  of  necessity  require  repainting  in  probably  less  than 
four  years.  This  proves  the  economy  of  the  fourth  coat, 
which,  under  average  conditions,  lasts  as  a  protective 
agency  for  probably  six  or  seven  years  before  the  neces- 
sity for  repainting  arises. 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  107 

Repainting  of  Exterior  Woodwork 

Remove  such  old  paint  as  may  be  necessary  from  ex- 
terior woodwork  by  scraping,  burning,  or  with  paint 
remover  as  conditions  may  require.  Sandpaper  and 
touch  up  with  paint  one  or  two  coats  as  found  neces- 
sary, all  of  that  portion  from  which  the  old  paint  has 
been  removed.  Paint  all  woodwork  two  coats,  colors  to 
be  selected.  Do  all  necessary  sandpapering  and  putty- 
ing. (See  Note  2.) 

NOTE  2 — In  the  work  of  repainting,  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  specify  intelligently  without  being  familiar 
with  conditions,  as  so  much  depends  upon  them. 

The  basic  paint  pigments  should  be  as  specified  in 
"Note  1."  The  proportions  of  vehicles  for  first  coat 
must  be  determined  by  conditions.  For  instance,  if  the 
vehicle  of  the  old  paint  coatings  is  dried  out,  leaving  an 
absorbing  surface,  hungry  as  it  were,  the  vehicle  for 
first  coat  should  consist  of  about  75  per  cent  raw  lin- 
seed oil  and  25  per  cent  turpentine,  second  or  final  coat 
90  per  cent  raw  linseed  oil  and  10  per  cent  turpentine; 
or,  if  the  surface  be  hard  and  non-absorbing,  the  proper 
proportions  of  vehicle  for  first  coat  should  be  about  50 
per  cent  oil  and  50  per  cent  turpentine,  the  final  coat 
90  per  cent  oil  and  10  per  cent  turpentine.  Not  infre- 
quently I  have  found  it  necessary  in  repainting,  from 
a  number  of  causes,  to  give  all  of  the  woodwork  three 
coats. 

The  overcoming  of  these  imperfect  conditions  and  pro- 
ducing the  best  results  possible,  is  largely  a  work  of 
diagnosis  consisting  of  about  75  per  cent  man  and  25 
per  cent  material.  The  remedy  for  the  different  ailments 
consists  in  the  different  proportions  of  the  vehicle  to 
meet  the  diversified  conditions,  and  not  with  the  pig- 
ments. 

The  paint  burner  ever  being  a  menace,  I  would  dis- 
courage its  use  where  possible.  In  every  instance  I  would 
have  the  owner  of  the  building  give  his  consent  to  its  use ; 
also  that  he  notify  his  insurance  company,  and  get  a 
permit  from  it  consenting  to  its  use. 

Staining  of  Exterior  Woodwork 
Medium — All  exterior  woodwork  (or  a  portion  as  the 


108  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

case  may  be)  to  receive  one  coat  of  linseed  oil  stain, 
brushed  well  and  uniformly  into  the  wood.  Color  to  be 
as  required.  Pigments  to  be  selected  for  their  perma- 
nency of  color.  Vehicle  to  consist  of  4C  per  cent  of  160 
degree  benzole  and  60  per  cent  raw  linseed  oil;  all  nail- 
holes  and  other  imperfections  to  be  closed  with  lead 
putty  colored  to  match  stain;  then  apply  one  good  coat 
of  raw  linseed  oil  containing  10  per  cent  turpentine. 
(See  Note  3.) 

First-Class — Specify  one  additional  coat  of  oil  contain- 
ing 10  per  cent  turpentine.  (See  Note  3.) 

Staining  Shingles — Dip  shingles  two-thirds  their  length 
in  stain  specified  as  above,  color  to  be  determined.  After 
shingles  are  in  position,  touch  up  and  apply  one  coat  of 
linseed  oil  containing  10  per  cent  turpentine.  (See 
Note  3.) 

NOTE  3— This  stain  is  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  wood 
used  for  exterior  finish.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a 
stain  implies  a  transparent  coloring,  and  not  a  paint 
coating  which  is  opaque.  If  it  is  desired  to  stain  oak 
or  cypress  to  a  dark  green  or  a  dark  brown  color  usually 
used  on  the  timbering  and  finish  of  houses  designed  after 
the  old  English  period,  two  coats  of  stain  should  be 
specified  to  get  the  necessary  depth  of  color.  To  at- 
tempt this  with  one  coat  would  result  practically  in  a 
paint  coating,  with  a  covering  or  hiding  of  the  figure  of 
the  wood.  If  it  is  desired  to  stain  oak  silver  grey  or 
other  light  colors,  but  one  coat  is  necessary.  Shingles, 
owing  to  depth  of  color  required,  frequently  require  a 
second  coat  of  stain  after  they  are  set  in  place.  The 
use  of  benzole  in  the  stain  becomes  the  active  penetrat- 
ing factor,  carrying  the  coloring  matter  and  oil  into  the 
woods.  It  has  about  the  same  evaporating  consistency  as 
turpentine. 

There  being  a  substantial  difference  between  a  paint 
coating  and  a  stain,  therefore  the  stain  specified  can  be 
used  when  necessary  for  both  coats. 

Where  a  perfectly  flat  surface  is  desired,  the  second 
coat  of  oil  may  be  an  objection;  but  for  durability  I 
would  recommend  it,  also  for  the  reason  that  the  oil  gloss 
shortly  flattens  down. 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  109 

There  are  a  number  of  very  good  shingle  stains  on  the 
market. 

Re-Staining  of  Exterior  Woodwork 

Prepare  and  re-stain  all  or  such  portion  of  exterior 
woodwork  as  may  be  found  necessary,  color  conforming 
closely  to  original  stain.  Coat  all  stained  woodwork  with 
two  coats  of  linseed  oil  containing  10  per  cent  turpentine. 
Between  first  and  second  coats,  close  up  all  imperfections 
with  putty  colored  to  match  stain.  (See  Note  4.) 

NOTE  4 — Re-staining  is  also  a  work  of  diagnosis  as 
to  whether  the  entire  work  should  be  gone  over  with  a 
light  coat  of  stain,  or  a  portion,  where  the  former  is 
badly  used  up,  and  whether  it  should  have  one  or  two 
coats  of  oil.  In  this  case  an  examination  will  quickly 
speak  for  itself.  A  coat  of  oil  over  the  old  stain  will 
make  quite  a  difference  in  appearance  of  old  color. 

Plain  Painting  for  Interior  New  Woodwork 

Shellac  all  knots  and  sapwood;  paint  woodwork  (lo- 
cating same)  three  good  coats,  color  to  be  selected.  After 
the  first  or  priming  coat,  close  up  with  lead  putty  all  nail- 
holes  and  other  imperfections.  Do  all  necessary  sand- 
papering between  coats.  (See  Note  13.) 

NOTE  13— If  color  required  be  white  or  lightly  tinted, 
the  wood  work  should  first  receive  one  coat  of  shellac 
to  prevent  discolorations  from  resin  and  sapwood.  If 
varnish  coat  should  be  required  over  paint,  specify  all 
painted  work  to  receive  one  coat  of  a  good  wearing  light 
color  varnish,  evenly  applied. 

Painting  and  Graining  Interior  New  Woodwork 

Shellac  all  knots  and  sapwood;  paint  all  woodwork 
(locating  same)  two  coats,  no  oil  to  be  used  in  this 
paint  other  than  that  in  which  the  lead  is  ground.  In 
mixing,  use  a  small  quantity  of  a  good  mixing  varnish, 
thinning  with  a  turpentine  so  that  the  paint  will  dry 
with  a  flat  eggshell  gloss,  sandpapering  each  coat  per- 
fectly smooth. 

Grain  in  best  manner  in  imitation  of  hardwood  to  b« 
selected,  the  graining  color  to  be  used  as  flat  as  possible, 


110  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

consistent  with  working  out.    Varnish  all  grained  work 
one  coat  of  a  good  wearing  body  varnish.    (See  Note  14.) 

NOTE  14 — If  a  first-class  job  is  required,  specify  one 
additional  coat  of  varnish  to  be  full  and  evenly  applied, 
each  coat  to  be  thoroughly  dried  before  the  application 
of  another.  If  a  flat  finish  is  required,  specify  the  last 
coat  of  varnish  to  be  rubbed  evenly  to  a  flat  finish  with 
crude  oil  and  pumice  stone,  all  oil  and  pumice  stone  to 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  off  at  completion. 

A  flat  finish  may  be  secured  by  using  what  is  termed 
a  "flat  varnish."  In  the  use  of  a  flat  varnish,  two  coats 
are  required,  the  first  being  a  gloss  varnish.  About  50 
per  cent  of  these  varnishes  contain  a  large  percentage 
of  wax  over  which  you  cannot  apply  at  any  future  time 
paint  or  varnish,  as  neither  will  adhere  permanently  to 
a  wax  surface.  The  use  of  some  of  these  flat  varnishes 
is  commendable,  especially  in  producing  certain  results 
on  natural  hardwoods. 

Graining  is  practically  becoming  a  lost  art,  owing  to 
the  general  use  of  hardwoods.  Where  the  work  is  well 
done,  this  specification  should  produce  splendid  results. 
Some  painters  may  not  agreed  with  me  in  the  number  of 
coats  and  manner  of  mixing  the  ground  coating;  let  them 
try  it,  and  they  will  find  no  cracking  or  crazing  of  their 
varnish;  but  of  course  the  varnish  must  be  good,  and 
undercoating  perfectly  dry. 

Woods  best  adapted  to  painting  and  graining  are  birch, 
cherry,  maple,  poplar,  and  white  pine. 

Natural  Finish  for  New  Interior  Softwoods 

All  woodwork  shall  be  thoroughly  gone  over,  cleaned 
up,  and  sandpapered  where  necessary,  after  which  apply 
one  coat  of  white  shellac  and  two  coats  of  a  good  wear- 
ing body  varnish,  the  last  coat  to  be  evenly  flowed  on. 
After  shellacing,  close  up  all  nail-holes  and  other  imper- 
fections with  putty  colored  to  match  wood,  being  care- 
ful to  rub  off  any  surplus  putty.  Sandpaper  thoroughly 
between  coats.  (See  Note  15.) 

NOTE  15 — This  would  apply  to  white  pine,  poplar, 
yellow  pine,  cypress,  etc.  Sometimes  a  flat  finish  is  re- 
quired; in  that  case,  specify  rubbing  with  oil  and  pum- 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  111 

ice  stone  to  a  dull  even  finish.  I  do  not  recommend  close 
rubbing  on  two  coats  of  varnish,  as  it  must  be  kept  in 
mind  that  close  rubbing  will  practically  remove  one 
coat  of  varnish.  I  do  not  recommend  any  rubbing  for 
servants'  quarters,  nor  yet  for  the  average  medium  job. 

The  natural  color  of  these  woods  is  sometimes  an  ob- 
jection. In  that  case  I  add  a  "touch"  of  burnt  sienna, 
or  burnt  and  raw  sienna,  to  the  first  coat  of  varnish,  not 
sufficient  to  produce  a  stain,  simply  giving  the  wood  a 
warm  pleasing  glow,  removing  the  harshness  of  the  nat- 
ural color. 

Staining  and  Varnishing  New  Interior  Softwoods 

All  woodwork  shall  receive  one  light  coat  of  25  per 
cent  linseed  oil  and  75  per  cent  turpentine.  Sandpaper 
and  stain  in  best  manner,  with  an  oil  stain  containing 
about  50  per  cent  turpentine ;  color  to  be  selected.  Close 
up  all  nail-holes  and  other  imperfections  with  lead  putty 
colored  to  match  stain,  being  careful  to  wipe  off  any  sur- 
plus putty  marks.  Varnish  all  stained  work  two  good 
coats  of  a  strong  wearing  body  varnish,  the  last  coat  to  be 
evenly  flowed  on.  Sandpaper  between  coats,  each  coat 
to  be  thoroughly  dry  before  another  is  applied.  (See 
Note  16.) 

NOTE  16 — The  purpose  of  applying  a  thin  coat  of  oil 
to  the  woodwork  before  staining  is  that  certain  portions 
of  the  surface  may  be  very  much  softer  than  others;  in 
fact  it  may  appear  in  spots,  all  .over.  With  the  appli- 
cation of  the  oil  as  specified,  you  in  a  measure  stop  the 
suction  of  those  soft  places,  and  get  a  practically  uni- 
form surface  on  which  to  work  the  stain.  A  thin  coat 
of  shellac  instead  of  the  oil  might  be  used,  but  I  prefer 
the  oil  as  thinned  with  the  turpentine,  as  I  get  a  more 
uniform  absorption  into  the  wood  for  the  stain,  the  shel- 
lac in  a  measure  stopping  absorption. 

For  a  flat  surface  I  would  specify  rubbing  with  oil  and 
pumice  stone  to  a  dull  finish;  for  close  rubbing  I  would 
specify  one  additional  coat  of  varnish.  This  specifica- 
tion would  apply  to  white  and  yellow  pine,  poplar,  cy- 
press, etc. 


112  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Painting  and  Enameling  Interior  New  Woodwork 

Medium — All  woodwork  (specify  location)  shall  be 
gone  over  carefully.  Shellac  all  knots  and  sap  portions. 
Prime  with  one  thin  coat  of  white  paint,  well  brushed 
into  the  wood,  after  which  sandpaper  thoroughly,  clos- 
ing up  all  nail-holes  and  other  imperfections  with  lead 
putty.  Apply  one  medium  coat  of  pure  grain  alcohol 
white  shellac.  Sandpaper  lightly.  Apply  three  coats 
of  white  paint  consisting  of  about  60  per  cent  white 
lead  and  40  per  cent  zinc  oxide,  and  one  coat  of  straight 
pure  zinc  oxide,  followed  by  one  coat  of  best  enamel, 
freely  and  evenly  applied,  all  coats  to  be  tinted  as  re- 
quired. Each  coat  must  be  thoroughly  dry  and  well 
sandpapered  before  the  application  of  another.  (See 
Note  17.) 

First-Class — Apply  one  additional  coat  to  the  above 
specification  (four  coats)  after  the  shellac,  followed  by 
the  straight  zinc  and  two  coats  of  best  enamel,  the  last 
coat  of  enamel  to  be  evenly  rubbed  with  water  and 
powdered  pumice  stone  to  a  satin  or  china  gloss  finish. 
(See  Notes  17  and  18.) 

NOTE  17 — "With  the  application  of  a  second  coat  of 
enamel,  this  specification  may  be  rubbed  with  water  and 
powdered  pumice  stone  to  a  very  good  finish.  If  a  semi- 
gloss  or  flat  finish  is  desired  with  but  one  coat  of  enamel, 
reduce  the  enamel  by  mixing  into  it  a  portion  of  the 
straight  zinc  coater  necessary  to  give  the  condition  re- 
quired. To  fully  obtain  this  result  requires  very  care- 
ful brushing,  so  as  not  to  show  laps,  brush  marks,  and 
cording;  but  it  can  be  accomplished  very  nicely. 

With  the  exception  of  the  priming  coat  no  oil  should  be 
used  except  such  as  may  be  found  in  the  stiff  lead  and 
zinc;  the  priming  coat  should  consist  of  about  40  per 
cent  oil  and  60  per  cent  turpentine,  light  of  body  and 
well  brushed  into  the  wood.  I  have  my  zinc  for  enamel- 
ing purposes  ground  in  poppy  oil,  which  greatly  min- 
imizes the  chances  of  the  work  turning  yellow  when  con- 
fined to  a  dark  room.  The  use  of  linseed  oil  is  a  strong 
factor  in  the  work  turning  yellow  when  excluded  from  a 


Mature  Western  Yellow  Pine 


Large,  Clear  White  Pine  Logs 
Plate  14 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  113 

strong  light.  In  the  preparation  of  my  several  under 
paint  coatings,  I  use,  instead  of  oil  as  a  binder,  a  por- 
tion of  a  good  mixing  enamel  varnish;  each  coat  must 
be  worked  flat.  In  using  the  straight  zinc  oxide  for  a 
final  coat  of  paint  on  this  class  of  work,  I  find  that  I 
can  get  purer  tints  of  greater  variety,  without  the  dan- 
ger from  chemical  action  that  would  result  if  I  were 
to  use  some  white  leads. 

The  straight  zinc  coat,  should  have  an  "eggshell  gloss" 
for  the  reason  that,  if  it  were  perfectly  flat  such  as  the 
under  paint  coatings  should  be,  it  would  absorb  and  draw 
the  liquid  properties  from  the  enamel  coat,  leaving  a  sur- 
face of  questionable  uniformity. 

The  different  coats  of  paint  from  the  shellac  up  should 
be  tinted  as  required  for  the  finish,  for  by  so  doing  you 
get  a  solidity  of  tint  that  you  otherwise  would  not.  For 
a  perfect  white  job,  we  oftentimes  "draw  the  lead;" 
that  is,  we  break  up  the  lead  in  turpentine  to  a  thin 
consistency,  permitting  it  to  stand  24  hours,  then  pour 
the  surface  liquid  off;  and  you  have  remaining  lead  prac- 
tically free  from  oil.  With  the  percentage  of  zinc  ox- 
ide specified,  and  with  the  use  of  a  good  white  enamel 
varnish,  or — which  is  better — a  portion  of  the  enamel 
as  a  binder-reduced  with  pure  turpentine  to  a  working 
consistency,  you  have  a  ground  work  for  enameling  that 
will  be  satisfactory  in  every  respect. 

NOTE  18 — This  specification,  if  faithfully  carried  out, 
will  produce  splendid  results.  For  this  high  class  work, 
cherry,  birch,  or  plain  maple  should  be  used;  good  re- 
sults can  be  secured  on  white  pine  or  poplar. 

Varnishing  and  Finishing  of  Hardwoods 

Medium — Sandpaper  and  remove  all  surface  defects. 
Stain  if  desired.  Fill  with  best  paste  filler,  colored  if 
necessary,  thoroughly  cleaning  surface  and  moldings. 
Shellac  one  coat,  and  varnish  two  coats  of  a  good  var- 
nish suitable  for  this  purpose.  After  the  shellac  coat, 
close  up  all  nail-holes  and  other  imperfections  with  lead 
putty,  colored  as  required,  all  surplus  putty  to  be  care- 
fully wiped  off.  Sandpaper  between  each  coat.  Care 
must  be  taken  during  varnishing  to  keep  the  premises 
as  free  from  dust  as  possible.  (See  Note  22.) 


114  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

First-Class — Sandpaper  and  remove  all  surface  defects. 
Stain  if  required.  Fill  with  best  paste  filler,  colored  if 
necessary.  Thoroughly  clean  all  surfaces  and  moldings. 
Shellac  one  coat  pure  grain  alcohol  shellac,  and  varnish 
four  coats  of  a  first-class  varnish  designed  for  this  class 
of  work.  Rub  all  varnish  surfaces  true  and  even,  with 
oil  and  pumice  stone,  to  a  dull  satin  finish.  Thoroughly 
clean  all  oil  and  pumice  stone  from  surface.  Each  coat 
must  be  thoroughly  dry  and  sandpapered  before  the  ap- 
plication of  another.  Care  must  be  taken  during  var- 
nishing, to  keep  premises  as  free  from  dust  as  possible. 
(See  Note  23.) 

NOTE  22— If  the  location  of  the  finish  justifies  addi- 
tional expense  and  a  flat  surface  is  desired,  specify  that 
the  last  coat  of  varnish  be  lightly  rubbed  with  oil  and 
pumice  stone  to  a  uniform  dull  finish,  thoroughly  cleans- 
ing surface  from  all  oil  and  pumice  stone.  In  servants' 
portions  of  residences,  this  is  not  justifiable. 

This  specification  pertains  to  all  open-grained  woods 
such  as  oak,  ash,  chestnut,  black  walnut,  etc.  If  cherry, 
birch,  maple,  and  such  woods  are  used,  frequently  the 
filling  with  paste  filler  is  eliminated,  the  shellac  coating 
filling  requirements.  In  my  own  operations,  I  invariably 
use  the  filler  as  specified,  but  quite  thin  in  body,  care- 
fully wiping  off  filler  from  surface.  For  birch  stained 
in  imitation  of  mahogany,  I  always  omit  the  filler,  shel- 
lacing direct  on  the  stain,  as  frequently  chemical  action 
takes  place  when  oil  is  brought  in  direct  contact  with 
mahogany  stain  used  on  birch. 

NOTE  23 — This  specification  applies  to  the  finishing 
of  red  or  white  mahogany,  cherry,  birch,  walnut,  rose- 
wood, etc. 

Frequently,  in  finishing  mahogany  or  other  woods 
stained  with  a  water  stain  in  imitation  of  mahogany  or 
otherwise,  after  lightly  sandpapering  the  stain,  I  apply 
a  light  coat  of  shellac  directly  on  the  stain,  sandpaper 
lightly,  then  proceed  with  the  filler  and  varnish  as  speci- 
fied. White  shellac  should  never  be  used  on  dark  ma- 
hogany or  mahogany  stained,  as  it  will  in  time  bleach 
out  white,  showing  a  milky  film  under  the  varnish.  I 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  115 

also  frequently  omit  both  the  shellac  and  filler,  apply- 
ing directly  to  the  stain  a  coat  of  linseed  oil  reduced  one 
half  with  turpentine  containing  a  little  dryer.  After  this 
has  remained  on  for  some  time,  wipe  off  carefully  any 
oil  that  may  remain  on  the  surface ;  allow  that  which  the 
wood  has  absorbed  to  get  perfectly  dry;  then  proceed 
with  the  varnishing  as  specified.  In  this  latter  case,  four 
coats  of  varnish  should  be  applied. 

For  white  or  bird's-eye  maple,  holly,  satinwood,  etc., 
eliminate  the  filler  and  stain,  specify  two  coats  of  pure 
grain  alcohol  white  shellac  and  three  coats  of  an  extra 
pale  varnish  designed  for  this  class  of  work,  rubbing 
and  finishing  as  specified.  In  bringing  oil  into  contact 
with  these  and  similar  woods,  it  has  a  tendency  to  darken, 
whereas  the  purpose  is  to  keep  them  as  light  and  natural 
as  possible. 

For  Italian  or  French  walnut,  Circassian  walnut,  and 
similar  woods,  where  it  is  so  important  that  the  natural 
colors  and  shading  be  preserved,  eliminate  the  filler,  and 
apply  as  above  two  coats  of  pure  grain  alcohol  white 
shellac  and  three  coats  of  a  light  varnish,  rubbing  and 
finishing  as  specified. 

Fine  carved  work  should  never  be  varnished  and  rubbed 
as  specified.  Specify  stain  if  necessary  to  conform  with 
balance  of  wood;  apply  one  light  coat  of  shellac  and  two 
thin  coats  of  wax  rubbed  to  a  hard  surface  with  stiff 
bristle  brush.  One  medium  or  light  coat  of  a  good  flat 
varnish  in  place  of  wax,  will  answer  very  nicely.  The 
filler  with  the  several  coats  of  varnish  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  filling  up  and  rounding  the  sharp  edges,  and 
clean  cutting  so  desirable  in  good  carvings. 

Staining  and  Waxing  of  Hardwoods 

Medium — Stain  all  work  with  an  approved  stain,  color 
to  be  selected.  Do  necessary  sandpapering,  after  which 
apply  one  coat  of  paste  filler,  colored  to  conform  with 
stain.  Thoroughly  clean  all  surfaces,  and  apply  one 
medium  coat  of  shellac.  Sandpaper  lightly,  and  apply 
one  good  coat  of  an  approved  finishing  wax,  permitting 
it  to  stand  until  semi-hard;  then  to  be  thoroughly  rubbed 
and  polished  to  a  hard  surface.  (See  Note  24.) 

First-Class — Coat  all  surfaces  (specify  location)  with 


116  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

one  medium  coat  of  clean  water  (this  for  oak  only). 
When  thoroughly  dry,  sandpaper  to  a  perfectly  smooth 
finish;  after  which  stain  uniformly  and  in  best  manner 
with  an  approved  water  stain,  color  to  be  selected.  Sand- 
paper lightly,  and  fill  with  paste  filler,  colored  to  con- 
form with  stain.  Apply  one  coat  of  pure  grain  alcohol 
shellac;  sandpaper  lightly;  after  which  apply  two  coats 
of  an  approved  finishing  wax,  giving  three  days  between 
coats.  Permit  each  coat  to  become  semi-hard;  then  to 
be  thoroughly  rubbed  and  polished  to  a  hard  surface. 
(See  Note  25.) 

NOTE  24— This  specification  will  apply  to  oak,  ash, 
chestnut,  mahogany,  cherry,  etc.  If  a  finish  with  open 
wood  pores  is  desired,  eliminate  the  filling,  but  add  one 
additional  coat  of  wax. 

NOTE  25 — This  specification  applies  to  oak,  ash,  chest- 
nut, red  and  white  mahogany,  cherry,  black  walnut,  etc., 
and  calls  for  splendid  results.  A  water  stain  is  men- 
tioned, it  being  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  in  showing 
up  to  advantage  the  general  beauty  of  the  natural  shad- 
ings  and  figure  of  the  woods.  In  staining,  it  should  be 
emphasized  that  it  does  not  mean  a  covering  up,  but 
rather  the  bringing  out.  In  oil  stains,  the  coloring  mat- 
ter is  largely  composed  of  pigments  of  a  different  char- 
acter; and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  permanent;  but  they 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  cover  up.  Spirit  stains  are 
hard  to  apply,  and  the  results  unsatisfactory,  the  color- 
ing matter  very  often  being  fugitive.  Where  it  is  pos- 
sible to  attain  the  color  requirements  by  the  use  of  a 
water  stain — and  their  number  is  legion — I  would  rec- 
ommend it  above  all  other.  All  water  stains  raise  the 
grain  of  the  wood  more  or  less;  spirit  stains,  very  little; 
and  oil  stains,  practically  none.  In  connection  with  the 
use  of  water  stain,  I  specify  an  application  of  clear 
water  to  the  oak  wood  directly  (in  my  practice  I  find 
no  harm  to  a  good  job  of  cabinet  work  accruing  from 
its  use),  so  that  the  surface  particles  may  be  raised; 
and  then  cut  off  with  sandpaper,  so  that  the  application 
of  the  water  stain  has  no  tendency  to  farther  raise  the 
grain.  When  the  water  coating  is  not  used,  and  the  water 
stain  is  applied  directly,  it  requires  so  much  sandpapering 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  117 

to  recover  again  a  smooth  surface  that  much  of  the  stain 
and  its  effects  are  removed  by  the  sandpapering.  The 
water  coating  is  very  frequently  omitted  on  less  impor- 
tant work.  When  oil  and  spirit  stains  are  used,  the  water 
coat  should  be  omitted ;  for  other  than  oak  wood,  it  may 
also  be  omitted  in  the  use  of  the  water  stain. 

Very  frequently,  to  get  desired  results,  I  apply  a  light 
coat  of  shellac  directly  on  top  of  stain,  after  which  I 
proceed  with  the  filling  as  specified.  I  also  frequently 
eliminate  the  shellac  coating  from  on  top  of  filler,  apply- 
ing wax  directly  on  filler.  The  results  desired  must  regu- 
late the  procedure. 

When  an  open-grain  or  pore  effect  is  desired,  omit  the 
filler,  but  add  one  additional  light  coat  of  shellac.  It  is 
very  essential  in  this  class  of  work  that  the  shellac  be 
applied  thin  and  even,  showing  no  laps  or  brush  marks. 
If  a  perfectly  flat  or  dead  finish  is  required,  omit  both 
filler  and  shellac  coatings,  waxing  as  specified  directly 
on  the  stain,  although  I  would  recommend  the  one  coat 
of  shellac.  If  the  natural  colors  of  the  woods  are  to  be 
retained,  omit  the  staining,  and  proceed  as  specified  and 
observing  above  notes. 

For  white  and  bird's-eye  maple,  satinwood,  holly, 
French,  Italian,  and  Circassian  walnut,  or  any  other 
similar  woods,  when  required  to  be  finished  showing 
their  natural  colors,  eliminate  the  water  coat,  stain,  and 
filler ;  specify  two  thin  coats  of  pure  grain  alcohol  white 
shellac  evenly  applied  directly  on  the  wood,  without 
showing  laps  or  brush  marks,  sandpapering  thoroughly 
each  coat;  then  proceed  with  waxing  as  specified.  When 
well  done,  this  will  give  splendid  results.  Frequently 
mahogany  and  other  woods  than  those  specified  above 
are  finished  after  this  manner.  It  is  not  unusual  in  pro- 
curing results  to  eliminate  the  shellac  coatings,  waxing  as 
specified  directly  on  the  raw  wood.  When  stain  is  neces- 
sary, apply  wax  directly  on  same. 

Often  pleasing  results  can  be  obtained  by  using  a  first- 
class  dead  or  flat  varnish.  For  instance,  if  a  perfectly 
dead  finish  is  required  on  open-pore  surfaces,  after  ap- 
plying the  stain,  sandpaper  and  apply  one  thin  coat  of 
shellac;  sandpaper  lightly  and  apply  one  coat  of  a  good 
flat  or  dead  varnish;  eliminate  the  waxing.  To  get  a 
still  flatter  effect,  eliminate  the  shellac  also.  This  proc- 
ess is  not  recommended  for  durability,  simply  for  its 


118  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

effect,  and  should  be  used  only  on  open-pore  woods  such 
as  oak,  where  the  broken  effect  of  the  wood  surface  de- 
stroys the  varnish  coating  effect.  In  this,  window  sash 
and  sills  should  be  protected  with  a  coat  of  good  body 
varnish ;  when  dry,  the  gloss  can  be  removed  by  rubbing. 

Finishing  Pine  Floors 

Thoroughly  cleanse  and  remove  all  surface  imperfec- 
tions; shellac  one  coat,  and  varnish  two  coats  of  a  good 
varnish  designed  for  this  purpose.  Each  coat  must  be 
thoroughly  dry  before  the  application  of  another.  All 
necessary  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  this  work  from 
damage.  (See  Note  26.) 

NOTE  26— This  specification  applies  to  white  and  yel- 
low pine,  also  to  maple.  If  this  class  of  flooring  is  re- 
quired to  be  stained,  specify,  instead  of  the  shellac,  floors 
to  receive  one  coat  consisting  of  25  per  cent  linseed  oil 
and  75  per  cent  turpentine ;  sandpaper  and  close  up  all 
imperfections.  Apply  one  coat  of  stain  consisting  of  40 
per  cent  linseed  oil  and  60  per  cent  turpentine,  evenly 
brushed  into  the  wood,  color  to  be  selected.  Follow  this 
with  varnish  as  specified. 

The  so-called  "liquid  fillers"— that  is,  prepared  fill- 
ers sometimes  used  to  coat  over  the  surface  and  permit- 
ted to  remain  there  without  rubbing  off — should  never  be 
used,  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  dry  thoroughly 
throughout.  Many  of  them  also  have  a  tendency  to  dis- 
color the  wood,  especially  when  they  begin  to  bleach  out 
by  reason  of  age,  etc. 

The  object  in  going  over  this  work  with  a  very  thin 
coating  of  oil  and  turpentine  is,  that,  if  you  were  to  apply 
the  stain  directly  to  the  wood,  the  result  would  be  a 
clouded  or  mottled  surface,  owing  to  the  natural  charac- 
teristics of  these  different  woods  to  absorb  more  in  one 
spot  or  place  than  in  another.  Very  little  if  any  stain 
should  be  left  on  the  surface.  It  should  be  absorbed  uni- 
formly by  the  wood,  and  be  thoroughly  dry  before  the 
application  of  the  varnish  coatings. 

Where  a  dull  finish  is  required,  specify  to  be  rubbed 
lightly  with  oil  and  pumice  stone  to  a  dull  finish.  A  dull 
or  flat  varnish  should  never  be  used  on  floors. 


PAINTS  AND  STAINS  119 

Varnish  Finish  for  Hardwood  Floors 

Thoroughly  cleanse  and  remove  all  surface  imperfec- 
tions. Fill  all  woodwork  with  a  good  paste  filler,  clean- 
ing thoroughly  from  surface.  Stain  if  required.  Shel- 
lac one  coat,  and  varnish  two  coats  of  best  varnish  de- 
signed for  floor  use.  Each  coat  must  be  thoroughly  dry 
before  the  application  of  another.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  protect  floors  from  damage.  (See  Note  27.) 

NOTE  27 — Very  frequently  the  color  desired  for  these 
floors  can  be  obtained  by  adding  necessary  coloring  mat- 
ter to  the  filler.  The  color  of  the  shellac  (white  or  orange) 
should  be  determined  by  the  color  required. 

If  a  flat  finish  is  desired,  specify  to  be  rubbed  with 
oil  and  pumice  stone  to  an  even,  dull  surface.  A  dull 
rubbed  surface  does  not  show  surface  scratches  or  abra- 
sions as  readily  as  a  bright  varnish  gloss.  Under  no  con- 
sideration use  a  flat  or  ''dead"  varnish  to  procure  this 
result. 

For  first-class  results  you  may  eliminate  the  shellac 
coating  and  substitute  one  additional  coat  of  varnish.  It 
is  very  essential  for  best  results,  that  each  coat  be  thor- 
oughly dry  before  the  application  of  another. 

This  style  of  finish  is  suitable  for  residences ;  but  proper 
care  must  be  exercised  that  it  be  not  abused,  for  at  best 
a  varnished  floor  surface,  from  its  very  nature,  is  more  or 
less  fragile. 

Wax  Finishing  of  Hardwood  Floors 

Thoroughly  cleanse  and  remove  all  surface  imperfec- 
tions. Fill  all  wood  surface  with  one  coat  of  best  paste 
filler,  thoroughly  cleansing  same  when  semi-dry,  from 
surface.  Stain  if  required.  Apply  one  thin,  even  coat 
of  pure  grain  alcohol  shellac.  Sandpaper  lightly  with- 
out showing  laps,  after  which  apply  two  coats  of  best 
"prepared  floor  wax,"  giving  two  or  three  days  between 
coats.  Each  coat  must  be  thoroughly  rubbed  to  a  hard, 
dry  surface.  Care  must  be  taken  to  protect  floors  from 
damage.  (See  Note  28.) 

NOTE  28 — This  specification  applies  to  practically  all 


120  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

class  of  flooring  woods,  and  produces  splendid  results 
as  a  wax  finish,  being  easily  cared  for  by  the  housekeeper 
simply  going  over  the  surface  lightly  with  turpentine, 
removing  any  surface  dirt  or  imperfections,  after  which 
repolish  with  one  coat  of  wax  as  specified.  Especial 
care  of  the  floor  should  be  observed  in  front  of  the  dif- 
ferent doorways,  as  that  portion  receives  the  greatest 
amount  of  wear. 

The  whole  secret  of  the  success  in  obtaining  a  thor- 
oughly practical  waxed  floor  finish,  is  the  recognition  of 
the  necessity  of  using  a  known  good  "floor  wax."  Then 
thoroughly  harden  each  coat  with  the  friction  caused  by 
good,  honest,  hard  rubbing. 

This  manner  of  finishing  as  specified,  while  it  pro- 
duces the  best-appearing  wax-finished  floor,  has  that 
which  oftentimes  is  an  objection,  it  being  quite  "slip- 
pery." To  remove  in  a  large  measure  this  objection, 
eliminate  the  coat  of  shellac  from  the  specifications. 

For  dancing  or  ballroom  floors,  I  would  apply  the 
two  coats  of  wax  directly  to  the  floor.  Of  necessity,  the 
wax  must  be  good  and  the  rubbing  hard,  allowing  two 
days  between  coats. 


WOOD  PAVING  BLOCKS 

THE  round,  untreated  white  cedar  block  was 
very  largely  used  for  paving  in  Northern 
cities  many  years  ago,  but  it  developed  so 
many  defects  that  wood  paving  came  very  much 
into  disrepute.  Within  the  last  few  years,  the 
introduction  of  sawed,  rectangular  creosoted 
blocks  has  given  such  excellent  results  that  they 
are  rapidly  becoming  a  most  popular  pavement 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  especially 
where  traffic  is  heavy  or  where  a  clean  and  com- 
paratively noiseless  pavement  is  desired.  A 
well-creosoted  block  does  not  decay;  and,  if  set 
upon  a  solid  concrete  foundation  with  a  good 
sand  cushion,  the  wear,  even  under  the  heaviest 
traffic,  is  very  little,  because  the  ends  of  fibers 
which  are  exposed  simply  mat  down  and  do  not 
shatter  as  do  stone  or  brick.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  more  than  ten  million  square 
yards  of  streets  paved  with  wooden  blocks  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  total  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing. The  wood  most  largely  used,  because 
of  its  general  availability,  is  longleaf  pine;  but 
Norway  pine  and  tamarack  have  also  been  used 
for  some  time  with  good  results,  and  there  is  a 
strong  disposition  on  the  part  of  paving  engi- 
neers to  experiment  with  numerous  other 
woods.  So,  doubtless,  the  list  will  be  much  ex- 
tended. 

121 


122  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

ESSENTIALS  FOE  A  GOOD  PAVEMENT 

The  best  method  of  laying  a  wood  block  pave- 
ment to  withstand  heavy  traffic  was  so  well  set 
forth  by  K.  S.  Manley,  at  the  last  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  American  Wood  Preservers  Associa- 
tion, that  we  quote  as  follows: 

A  creosoted  wood  block  pavement  should  show  no 
evidences  of  wear  for  many  years,  if  the  proper  materials 
are  used,  and  if  they  are  assembled  in  the  proper  way. 

The  correct  depth  of  base  or  foundation  varies  with 
the  soil  conditions;  but  the  materials  forming  this  con- 
crete foundation,  and  the  methods  of  mixing,  are  in  such 
common  use  as  to  be  standard  and  easily  secured. 

"We  are  interested  principally  in  the  construction  placed 
on  top  of  the  concrete.  The  principal  causes  of  defects 
of  more  or  less  serious  nature,  are:  (1)  irregular  or  un- 
even surface  due  (a)  to  careless  laying,  (b)  to  shifting 
of  sand  cushion,  (c)  to  breaking  or  settling  of  concrete. 
(2)  Expansion  difficulties  due  to  the  entrance  of  water 
into  the  blocks  either  by  way  of  the  joints  or  from  be- 
low. 

The  first  (irregular  or  uneven  surface)  is  death  to  any 
paving  material,  because  a  depression  in  the  surface 
holds  water,  and  repeated  churnings  of  wagon  wheels 
in  the  depression  are  bound  to  cause  an  enlargement  and 
deepening  of  the  depression. 

To  avoid  (a),  the  concrete  should  be  mixed  quite  wet, 
and  finished  smoothly  with  a  flat  wooden  spreader,  which 
gives  a  surface  practically  as  even  and  uniform  as  could 
be  obtained  by  templet.  On  this  should  be  spread  from 
one-half  to  one  inch  of  clean  sand,  making  the  sand 
cushion  conform  to  the  contour  of  the  finished  street. 
On  this,  place  the  blocks  quite  closely  together;  roll 
thoroughly  until  a  perfect  surface  with  no  inequalities 
has  been  obtained,  and  until  the  blocks  are  firmly  in 


WOOD  PAVING  BLOCKS  123 

place.  It  will  require  a  great  deal  of  rolling  to  accom- 
plish this,  but  the  end  justifies  the  means.  After  this, 
fill  all  joints  two-thirds  full  of  hot  bituminous  filler  of 
such  melting  point  as  is  suited  to  climatic  conditions; 
and  spread  a  thin  coating  of  sand  thereon.  The  use  of 
the  bituminous  filler  is,  in  my  estimation,  the  most  im- 
portant of  all.  It  converts  the  street  into  an  effective 
watershed  which,  without  absorbing  any  of  the  water, 
directs  it  into  storm  sewers  or  other  drainage  paths. 
Should  any  water  remain  on  the  surface,  the  wind  and 
the  sun,  both  good  evaporative  agencies,  will  rapidly 
dissipate  it. 

Now  you  have  an  absolutely  even  surface  waterproofed 
and  converted  into  a  watershed.  This  surface  cannot 
be  worn  by  traffic,  because  the  pressure  of  wheels  is  even 
and  regular,  and  there  is  no  dropping  or  jolting  of  wheels 
entering  and  leaving  low  spots.  The  blocks  are  laid 
tightly  together,  so  that  there  is  no  wearing  at  the  joints. 
There  can  be  no  change  in  the  sand  cushion  as  long  as 
the  surface  remains  intact,  a  solid  sheet,  in  fact,  of  wood 
block  cemented  together  by  the  filler;  and  consequently 
the  difficulty  of  shifting  cushion  is  avoided.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  the  concrete  is  sufficiently  strong  so  that  it 
will  not  break  or  settle.  In  planning  the  depth,  any 
error  should  be  on  the  side  of  too  great,  rather  than  too 
little  depth. 

Expansion  difficulties  are  eliminated  by  the  use  of 
bituminous  filler,  for  there  can  be  no  expansion  without 
absorption  of  water,  and  no  absorption  of  water  when 
all  rainfall  is  conducted  quickly  to  drainage  sewers. 
In  addition  to  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  with  the 
bituminous  filler  each  block  is  surrounded  by  an  in- 
dividual expansion  joint. 

The  other  way  of  constructing  wood  block  surface 
which  is  sometimes  recommended,  is  to  provide  a  mixed 
sand  and  cement  cushion  and  sand-filled  joints  or  in- 
terstices. The  sand  and  cement  cushion  does  not  give 


124  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

the  opportunity  for  absolutely  smooth  surface  that  the 
sand  cushion  gives,  and  is  considerably  more  costly.  The 
sand  filler  in  the  joints  allows  moisture  to  be  absorbed 
in  the  pavement;  and  ultimately  this  moisture  gets  into 
the  blocks,  and  trouble  ensues.  It  is  only  on  extremely 
heavy  traffic  streets  that  sand  can  be  used  as  a  filler 
without  expecting  some  expansion  difficulties  sooner  or 
later.  The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  the  eating;  and  the 
proof  of  theories  of  wood  block  construction  lie  in  the 
actual  occurrences  on  the  street. 

It  can  be  stated  without  fear  of  successful  contradic- 
tion, that  every  sand-filled  pavement  in  the  South  has  at 
one  time  or  other  given  trouble  from  uncompensated  ex- 
pansion; that  with  equal  confidence  it  can  be  stated  that 
not  one  bituminous-filled  pavement  has  given  trouble 
from  this  cause. 

Now,  there  have  been  objections  put  forward  to  the 
bituminous  filler  because  of  the  belief  that  it  would  pro- 
duce a  sticky  surface,  disagreeable  in  warm  weather; 
but  if  the  proper  filler  is  secured,  and  it  is  correctly  ap- 
plied, there  can  be  no  such  objection.  The  suitable  filler 
has  a  consistency  of  rubber,  and  can  be  taken  in  the 
fingers,  bent  and  twisted  without  soiling  the  fingers.  In 
applying  this  filler,  a  spreader  with  squegee  attachment 
places  the  filler  in  the  joints  where  it  is  needed,  and  not 
on  the  surface  of  the  blocks  where  it  is  not  needed. 

It  is  proper  also  to  use  less  creosote  oil  per  cubic  foot 
of  timber  when  bituminous  filler  is  used,  for  the  pri- 
mary function  of  the  creosote  oil  in  this  case  is  to  pre- 
serve against  decay,  instead  of  trying  to  make  the  cre- 
osote oil  fill  the  double  role  of  preservative  and  abso- 
lute waterproofer.  No  one  familiar  with  preservative 
methods  and  their  history  will  question  the  efficacy  of 
sixteen  pounds  of  creosote  oil  per  cubic  foot  in  preserv- 
ing against  decay  for  an  indefinite  period.  "We  there- 
fore see  that  bituminous  filler  can  be  used  carefully,  and 
without  inconvenience  because  of  stickiness. 


WOOD  PAVING  BLOCKS  125 

To  sum  up,  therefore,  provide  adequate,  smooth,  con- 
crete foundation;  use  enough  sand  to  cover  any  inequal- 
ities in  the  concrete  or  depth  of  blocks  (except  in  rail- 
way areas  and  on  grades,  when  use  sand  and  cement 
mixed) ;  lay  blocks  tightly;  roll  until  smooth;  fill  joints 
with  bituminous  filler ;  spread  coating  of  sand ;  and  turn 
on  traffic. 

DEPTH  OF  PAVING  BLOCKS 

The  proper  depth  of  wooden  paving  blocks  is 
a  matter  yet  to  be  determined.  ^ShallpwJ)locks 
are  likely  to  split  because  the  pressure  upon 
them  under  heavy  traffic  is  so  great  that  the 
fibers  are  pulled  apart,  or,  as  technically  stated, 
the  wood  fails  in  longitudinal  shear.  Deeper 
blocks  will  not  fail  so  easily;  that  is,  a  block 
three  inches  deep  may  soon  give  way  under 
heavy  traffic,  while  one  four  inches  deep  may 
stand  up  well. 

Since  longleaf  pine  has  so  far  been  regarded 
as  the  standard  paving  block  wood,  the  Di- 
rector of  the  Government  Forest  Products  La- 
boratory recently  made  an  interesting  compar- 
ison of  its  longitudinal  shearing  strength  with 
that  of  a  number  of  other  woods,  and  also  indi- 
cated the  depth  it  would  be  necessary  to  have 
blocks  of  these  woods  to  give  the  same  shearing 
strength  as  a  longleaf  pine  block  3%  inches 
deep.  The  results  of  the  comparison  are  given 
in  Table  13. 

Of  course,  as  the  Director  states,  the  depth  of 
a  block  is  not  the  only  thing  to  be  considered 
in  wood  pavement.  Other  conditions — such  as 


126  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

cost  of  material,  and  ability  to  take  creosote — 
eliminate  some  of  the  woods  listed  in  Table  13 
from  practical  consideration  for  paving  blocks. 

TABLE   13 

Longitudinal  Shearing  Strength  of  Wood  Blocks 


Depth  Necessary 
earing  Strength  to  Equal 

Parallel  to         Strength  of  Long- 


Sheartne  Strength 


Grain  leaf  Pine 

Species  of  Wood  (Lbs.  per  sq.  In.)  (Inches) 

Pignut  hickory 2,710  2.18 

Sugar  maple 2,385  2.48 

Rock  elm 2,154  2.74 

Beech    1,908  3.1 

Red  maple 1,789  3.3 

Longleaf  pine 1,688  3.5 

Tupelo ,577  3.75 

Sycamore ,554  3.8 

Yellow  hirch ,428  4.14 

Tamarack    ,372  4.31 

Western  yellow  pine ,300  4.54 

Norway  pine 1,262  4.68 

Douglas  fir 1,180  5.01 

Eastern  hemlock    1,148  5.15 

Shortleaf  pine 1,135  5.2 

White  spruce    1,134  5.21 

Lodgepole  pine 974  6.07 

Redwood   674  8.78 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  WOOD  BLOCK 
PAVING 

The  Association  for  Standardizing  Paving 
Specifications  has  adopted  the  following  speci- 
fications for  paving  with  creosoted  wood  blocks: 

Timber.  The  wood  to  be  treated  shall  be  Southern 
yellow  pine,  Norway  pine,  Douglas  fir,  or  tamarack;  but 
only  one  kind  of  wood  shall  be  used  in  any  one  con- 
tract. 

Yellow  pine  blocks  shall  be  made  from  what  is  known 
as  Southern  yellow  pine ;  and  shall  be  well  manufactured, 


WOOD  PAVING  BLOCKS  127 

full  size,  saw-butted,  all  square  edges,  and  free  from  all 
defects,  such  as  checks,  unsound,  loose  or  hollow  knots, 
knot-holes,  worm-holes,  through  shakes,  and  round  shakes 
that  show  on  the  surface.  In  yellow  pine  timber,  the 
annular  rings  shall  average  not  less  than  7  to  the  inch, 
and  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than  5  to  the  inch,  measured 
radially  from  the  heart  so  as  to  include  the  greatest 
number  of  rings  possible. 

Norway  pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  tamarack  blocks  shall 
be  cut  from  timber  that  is  first-class  in  every  respect,  and 
shall  be  of  the  same  grade  as  that  defined  for  Southern 
yellow  pine. 

Size  of  Blocks.  The  blocks  shall  be  from  5  to  10  inches 
long,  but  shall  average  8  inches;  they  shall  be  from  3 
to  4  inches  in  width ;  and  they  shall  be  4  inches  in  depth.* 
The  blocks  used  in  any  one  street  or  improvement,  how- 
ever, shall  be  of  uniform  width;  and  there  shall  be  al- 
ways a  difference  between  the  width  and  depth  of  the 
blocks  of  not  less  than  %  inch. 

A  variation  of  tV  incn  shall  be  allowed  in  the  depth, 
and  y8  inch  in  the  width,  of  the  blocks. 

Treatment.  The  blocks  shall  be  treated  with  the  pre- 
servative under  pressure,  and  shall  at  no  time  be  sub* 
jected  to  a  temperature  of  over  240  degrees  F.  They 
shall,  after  treatment,  show  satisfactory  penetration  of 
the  preservative;  and  all  blocks  that  have  been  warped, 
checked,  or  otherwise  injured  in  the  process  of  treat- 
ment, shall  be  rejected. 

The  blocks  shall  be  treated  with  the  preservative  so 
that  they  shall  contain  not  less  than  18  pounds  per  cubic 
foot. 


*  Note — The  depth  of  the  blocks  may  be  reduced  to  3^  inches 
in  medium-traffic  streets,  and  to  3  inches  on  light-traffic  streets 
or  alleys.  The  width  and  depth  of  the  blocks,  however,  must 
never  be  equal.  In  case  blocks  3  inches  in  depth  are  used,  they 
shall  not  exceed  8  inches  in  length. 


128  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

(Note — This  amount  may  range  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
pounds,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Engineer,  dependent  on  local 
conditions.) 

Foundation.  The  base  shall  be  of  concrete  made  of 
the  materials  and  in  accordance  with  the  methods  pre- 
scribed in  the  specifications  for  cement  and  concrete 
adopted  at  the  1913  meeting,  and  shall  be  not  less  than 
6  inches  thick  at  all  points. 

(Note — The  thickness  of  the  concrete  base  may  be  reduced 
to  5  inches  on  light-traffic  streets,  and,  in  exceptional  cases,  to 
4  inches,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Engineer.) 

Sand  Cushion.  The  blocks  shall  be  laid  on  a  cushion 
of  clean,  coarse  sand  1  inch  in  thickness,  which  shall 
be  struck  to  a  surface  parallel  with  the  grade  and  con- 
tour of  the  finished  pavement. 

Mortar  Cushion.  Before  placing  the  cushion,  the  sur- 
face of  the  concrete  shall  be  cleaned  and  thoroughly 
dampened.  A  layer  of  sand  and  cement  1  inch  in  thick- 
ness, mixed  dry  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  Portland 
cement  to  4  parts  sand,  shall  be  spread  upon  the  con- 
crete foundation,  and  struck  to  a  surface  parallel  to  the 
grade  and  contour  of  the  finished  pavement. 

This  cushion  of  sand  and  cement,  unless  previously 
moistened,  shall  be  lightly  sprinkled  with  water;  and 
the  blocks  shall  be  immediately  set  thereon. 

(Note — Under  special  conditions,  particularly  where  vibra- 
tion may  be  expected,  the  sand  or  mortar  cushion  may  be 
omitted,  and  a  bituminous  coating,  spread  upon  a  smoothly 
finished  and  thoroughly  dry  concrete  base,  substituted  there- 
for.) 

Filler.  "When  the  blocks  are  laid  upon  the  sand  cush- 
ion, the  joints  between  the  blocks  shall  be  filled  with  a 
suitable  bituminous  filler.  When  the  blocks  are  laid  upon 
a  mortar  or  bituminous  cushion,  the  joints  may  be  filled 
with  sand. 

Expansion  Joints.  A  longitudinal  expansion  joint  not 
less  than  %  inch  in  width,  and  filled  with  a  suitable 
bituminous  filler,  shall  be  placed  along  the  curbs. 


Redwoods   in   California 
Plate   16 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


WOOD  PAVING  BLOCKS  129 

The  specifications  for  the  creosote  to  be  used 
are  also  defined  very  closely.  The  city  engi- 
neer who  follows  throughout  the  standards  set 
by  the  Association  can  be  certain  of  a  superior 
pavement  of  great  durability. 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING 

ONE  of  the  most  notable  and  useful  de- 
velopments of  modern  lumber  manufac- 
turing is  the  production  of  high-grade 
flooring  of  maple,  beech,  birch,  oak,  tupelo,  yel- 
low pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  other  woods.  This 
flooring  is  manufactured  to  exact  standard  sizes 
from  selected,  thoroughly  seasoned  stock,  and  is 
as  carefully  handled  as  is  interior  finish.  In 
fact,  a  beautiful  and  durable  hardwood  floor  is 
an  important  part  of  the  inside  finish  of  a  build- 
ing, now  that  carpets  have  been  replaced  by 
rugs. 

Since  hardwood  flooring  is  manufactured  from 
kiln-dried  stock,  is  stored  by  the  maker  in  dry 
sheds,  and  is  shipped  in  closed  cars  so  as  to 
prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture,  the  user 
should  make  every  effort  to  have  the  flooring 
carefully  handled,  correctly  laid,  and  properly 
finished.  Some  of  the  points  to  bear  in  mind 
are  to  avoid  unloading  the  flooring  in  damp 
weather;  not  to  store  it  in  open  sheds  or  in 
newly  plastered  buildings;  nor  to  lay  it  until 
the  building  is  thoroughly  dried  out.  When  an 
under-floor  is  used,  as  is  advisable  with  the  thin- 
ner sizes,  the  hardwood  flooring  should  be  laid 
diagonally  or  across  the  sub-floor,  and  the  lat- 
ter should  be  dressed  to  even  thickness. 

The  best  practice  indicates  the  use  of  steel 

130 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  131 

cut  nails  for  hardwood  flooring.  These  nails  are 
manufactured  especially  for  this  purpose.  They 
should  be  driven  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  and 
it  is  stated  that  better  results  are  obtained  if  no 
nails  are  placed  within  six  inches  of  the  end  of 
the  flooring  pieces. 

Maple,  beech,  and  birch  are  close-grained 
woods  of  similar  structure  which  give  equally 
good  appearance  and  service  for  flooring, 
whether  slash-  or  quarter-sawed.  Red  and 
white  oak  floors  are  popular  in  both  the  plain 
and  quartered  forms,  depending  upon  the  figure 
desired;  while  quarter-sawed  or  edge-grain  yel- 
low pine  and  Douglas  fir  are  very  much  better 
than  slash-sawed  floors  of  these  woods.  Strictly 
speaking,  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  fir  are  soft- 
woods, but  edge-grain  flooring  made  from  them 
gives  such  good  service  that  it  is  widely  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  hardwood  flooring. 

MAPLE,  BEECH,  AND  BIRCH  FLOORING 

The  Maple  Flooring  Manufacturers  Associ- 
ation has  the  following  rules  for  maple,  beech, 
and  birch  flooring: 

Clear  Grade 

Clear — £f  inch  and  thicker,  shall  have  one  face  prac- 
tically free  of  all  defects,  but  the  question  of  color  shall 
not  be  considered.  Standard  lengths  in  all  widths  in 
this  grade  shall  be  trimmed  2  to  16  feet;  the  proportion 
of  lengths  2  to  3y2  feet  shall  be  what  the  stock  will  pro- 
duce up  to  15  per  cent. 

This  grade  combines  appearance  and  durability  and 
has  a  face  free  of  defects  that  would  materially  mar  the 


132  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

appearance  of  the  finished  floor  or  impair  its  durability. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  standard  of  appearance  is  that 
of  a  finished  floor,  not  the  top  of  a  piano.  A  practical 
application  of  this  rule  will  admit  an  occasional  small 
sound  pin  knot  not  over  %  inch  in  diameter;  dark 
green  or  black  spots  or  streaks  not  over  %  inch  wide 
and  3  inches  long  or  its  equivalent;  birdeyes  and  small 
burls;  a  slightly  torn  grain  or  similar  defect  which  can 
be  readily  removed  by  the  ordinary  method  of  smooth- 
ing the  floor  when  it  is  laid ;  a  slightly  shallow  place  not 
over  12  inches  long  on  under  side  of  flooring  if  it  does 
not  extend  to  either  end  of  the  piece.  An  otherwise  per- 
fect tongue  which  is  one-half  short  for  25%  of  length  of 
piece  is  admissible;  but  the  face  must  be  free  of  checks 
or  shake,  and  the  wood  must  be  live  and  sound. 

No.  1  Grade 

No.  1 — }f  inch  and  thicker,  will  admit  of  tight,  sound 
knots  and  slight  imperfections  in  dressing,  but  must  lay 
without  waste.  Standard  lengths  in  all  widths  in  this 
grade  shall  be  trimmed  1%  to  16  feet;  the  proportion 
of  lengths  1%  to  3V2  feet  shall  be  what  the  stock  will 
produce  up  to  30  per  cent. 

This  grade  is  made  for  service  rather  than  appearance. 
It  admits  of  tight,  sound  knots ;  prominent  discolorations ; 
numerous  dark  green  or  black  spots  or  streaks;  slight 
checks  not  exceeding  3  inches  in  length  and  running 
parallel  with  and  well  inside  of  the  edges  of  the  strip; 
dark  spots  or  streaks  with  slight  checks  in  center;  small 
rough  spots  which  cannot  be  wholly  removed  by  the  or- 
dinary method  of  smoothing  the  floor  when  it  is  laid ; 
slightly  torn  edges;  short  tongue  if  sufficient  to  hold 
properly  in  the  floor;  shallow  or  waney  back  if  piece 
has  sufficient  bearings  of  full  thickness  to  support  it  in 
floor;  and  slight  variation  in  angle  of  end  matching. 
While  these  and  similar  features  are  admissible,  sufficient 
attention  is  given  to  appearance  to  make  this  grade  de- 
sirable and  satisfactory  for  use  in  stores,  schoolhouses, 
and  similar  places  where  a  waxed  or  varnished  floor  is 
not  required. 

Factory  Grade 

Factory — \%  inch  and  thicker,  must  be  of  such  char- 
acter as  will  lay  and  give  a  good  serviceable  floor,  with 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  133 

some  cutting.  Standard  lengths  in  all  widths  in  this 
grade  shall  be  trimmed  1  to  16  feet;  the  proportion  of 
lengths  1  to  3l/2  feet  shall  be  what  the  stock  will  pro- 
duce up  to  50  per  cent. 

This  grade  is  suitable  for  factory,  warehouse  and 
kindred  uses,  and  where  a  low-priced  floor  is  wanted  for 
wear,  nothing  better  or  cheaper  can  be  obtained  than 
the  Factory  grade. 

Special  Grades 

White  Clear  is  special  stock  manufactured  from  white 
clear  maple  lumber  from  the  outside  of  the  log,  winter- 
sawed,  and  end-piled  in  sheds  to  prevent  staining;  is 
almost  ivory  white ;  and  is  the  finest  grade  of  Maple  floor- 
ing it  is  possible  to  produce. 

Red  Clear  Beech  and  Red  Clear  Birch  are  manufactured 
from  all-red  face  stock,  especially  selected  for  color,  and 
are  free  from  all  defects.  The  color  is  a  rich,  warm 
tint  peculiar  to  no  other  wood. 

The  standard  sizes  for  maple,  beech,  and  birch 
flooring  are  indicated  in  Table  14. 

TABLE   14 

Standard  Sizes  for  Maple,  Beech,  and  Birch  Flooring 

Standard  Thickness  Faces  Grades 

il"  1%",  2",  2^4",  3&"   Clear,  No.  1,  Factory 

Special  Thicknesses 

W.  1&",  Itt*.      2",  2^4",  3%"  Clear,  No.  1,  Factory 

%"  %",  1",  1%",  2", 

2^4"  Clear  and  No.  1  only 

%",   %"  1%",   2",   2^4"  Clear  and  No.  1  only 

%  "  and  thicker,  all  Faces,  is  measured  %  "  waste  for  matching. 
%"  and  thinner,  all  Faces,  is  measured  W  waste  for  matching. 

The  Association  makes  the  following  recom- 
mendation for  the  use  of  the  different  grades: 

Clear,  or  first  quality,  is  suitable  for  apart- 
ment buildings,  churches,  clubs,  dancing  floors, 
gymnasiums,  hospitals,  hotels,  office  buildings, 
public  buildings,  residences,  roller-skating 


134  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

rinks,  schoolhouses,  stores,  and  similar  build- 
ings. 

No.  1,  or  second  quality,  is  a  common  grade, 
and  its  relation  to  Clear  is  similar  to  that 
between  second  and  first  grade  of  finish.  It  is 
just  as  serviceable  as  Clear,  and  equally  as 
desirable  when  there  is  no  objection  to  the 
appearance ;  and  it  can  be  used  in  the  same  class 
of  buildings  as  the  Clear  grade,  at  a  material 
saving  in  the  cost  of  construction. 

Factory,  or  third  grade,  will  give  excellent 
satisfaction  in  factories,  creameries,  granaries, 
mills,  warehouses,  workshops,  and  in  other 
buildings,  at  mines,  on  farms,  etc.  Where  a 
low-priced  floor  is  wanted  for  wear,  nothing  bet- 
ter or  cheaper  can  be  obtained  than  this  grade. 

Laying1  and  Finishing  Hardwood  Floors 

One  of  the  largest,  manufacturers  of  maple, 
beech,  and  birch  flooring  gives  these  directions 
for  the  laying  and  finishing  of  his  products: 

To  get  the  best  results,  hardwood  floors  should  be  laid 
when  the  building  is  thoroughly  dry,  and  in  as  dry 
weather  as  possible.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  sur- 
face upon  which  the  floor  is  laid  is  clean  and  smooth. 
Drive  the  flooring  up  well,  both  side  and  end,  being 
careful  not  to  break  the  tongue. 

Nail  H-inch  thick  flooring  with  an  eight-penny  floor- 
ing brad.  For  %-inch  thick  flooring,  a  li/4-mch  finishing 
brad  No.  15  is  recommended. 

Maple  flooring  for  ordinary  purposes  should  be  left 
as  it  comes  from  the  factory.  Even  for  kitchen  floors 
it  is  not  well  to  fill  it,  for  the  oil  tends  to  make  it  look 
dirty  and  greasy.  If,  however,  a  finish  on  a  maple  floor 
is  desired,  omit  the  filler.  By  doing  this,  the  natural 
color  of  the  wood  is  preserved. 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  135 

After  being  laid,  if  it  is  needed,  scrape  until  perfectly 
smooth.  If  a  wax  finish  is  desired,  apply  two  light  coats 
of  wood  alcohol  shellac.  Let  the  first  coat  stand  one 
hour  before  putting  on  the  second.  When  the  second 
coat  stands  about  two  hours,  sandpaper  with  No.  0  sand- 
paper, and  the  floor  is  ready  for  the  wax,  an  article 
made  expressly  for  this  purpose  and  ready  for  use.  Put 
on  this  wax  as  thin  as  possible,  and  let  it  stand  half  an 
hour.  Then,  with  a  weighted  brush  (made  especially 
for  the  purpose),  brush  first  across  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and  again  lengthwise,  until  the  brush  slips  easily 
over  the  floor.  When  this  result  is  effected,  place  a  piece 
of  soft  carpet  under  the  brush  and  rub  until  the  desired 
polish  is  derived.  This  finish,  when  complete,  is  very 
desirable,  but  it  requires  quite  an  amount  of  labor  to 
keep  properly.  When  there  are  many  and  large  rooms 
and  sufficient  help  to  do  the  work,  it  is  doubtless  the 
best. 

To  those,  however,  whose  dwellings  are  not  large  and 
spacious  and  who  desire  a  modern  floor,  we  recommend 
the  following  as  a  convenient  and  durable  finish:  Ap- 
ply two  coats  of  good  floor  varnish,  and  the  floor  is  com- 
plete. Should  the  gloss,  which  is  the  result  of  a  varnish 
finish,  be  not  desirable,  rub  the  floor  with  a  good  rub- 
bing oil  and  pumice  stone,  with  a  piece  of  burlap,  lightly ; 
wipe  dry,  and  the  gloss  will  disappear.  The  last  coat  of 
varnish  should  stand  48  hours  before  rubbing. 

Floors  that  have  been  finished  in  shellac  should  be 
kept  clean  by  thoroughly  brushing  off  the  dust  with  a 
soft  hair  or  feather  brush,  or  by  wiping  with  a  cloth  of 
soft  texture.  If  the  cloth  is  slightly  moist,  the  dust  will 
adhere  to  it  more  readily,  but  wipe  with  a  dry  clotk 
afterward.  If  any  dirt  that  will  not  wipe  off  with  a 
moist  cloth  should  be  deposited  on  the  floor,  wash  it  off 
thoroughly  with  clean,  warm  water  (not  hot),  using 
soap,  if  necessary,  which  also  cleanse  off  with  water 
as  quickly  as  possible,  and  wipe  dry. 


136  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

When  the  face  of  the  floor  begins  to  look  worn  and 
shabby,  after  cleansing  off  the  dirt  and  wiping  dry,  if 
water  has  been  used,  rub  the  surface  all  over  nicely  with 
a  mixture  two-thirds  turpentine  and  one-third  raw  lin- 
seed oil.  To  do  this,  saturate  a  soft  cloth  of  any  kind 
with  the  mixture,  wring  out  half-dry,  and  rub  the  floor 
with  it  evenly.  Do  not  use  the  oil  so  freely  as  to  leave 
it  standing  on  the  surface  to  catch  dust.  To  prevent 
this,  wipe  off  with  a  clean,  dry  cloth.  After  the  shellac 
is  worn  down  to  the  surface  of  the  wood,  sandpaper  it 
all  over  evenly  with  a  No.  1  sandpaper,  and  give  it 
another  coat  of  shellac,  after  which  continue  to  keep  as 
before. 

Floors  finished  in  a  plain  oil  only,  should  be  kept  in 
the  same  manner  as  above,  more  soap  and  water  being 
required  and  more  frequent  rubbing  with  the  mixture 
of  turpentine  and  linseed  oil  spoken  of  above. 

"Waxed  floors  can  be  cleansed  by  washing  off  thor- 
oughly with  turpentine  and  benzine,  after  which  they 
can  be  re-waxed  if  desired. 

Floors  finished  in  "hard  oil"  should  be  kept  like  floors 
finished  with  shellac.  A  maple  floor  for  a  kitchen  that 
has  not  been  finished  in  wax  or  oil,  is  best  taken  care  of 
by  being  scrubbed  or  rubbed  with  any  of  the  scouring 
preparations  now  in  the  market  for  that  purpose. 

Every  prospective  user  of  maple,  beech,  and 
birch  flooring  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to 
write  to  the  Maple  Flooring  Manufacturers 
Association,  Chicago,  111.,  for  a  copy  of  the 
"Official  Maple  Flooring  Book." 

OAK  FLOORING 

The  Oak  Floor  Manufacturers  Association, 
whose  office  is  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  distributes  an 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  137 

excellent  booklet  upon  oak  flooring,  from  which 
the  following  information  is  taken: 

GRADING  RULES 
Quarter-Sawed  Oak  Flooring 

Clear — Shall  have  one  face  practically  free  of  defects, 
except  %  of  an  inch  of  bright  sap;  the  question  of  color 
shall  not  be  considered;  lengths  in  this  grade  to  be  2 
feet  and  up,  not  to  exceed  15  per  cent  under  4  feet. 

Sap  Clear — Shall  have  one  face  practically  free  of 
defects,  but  will  admit  unlimited  bright  sap.  The  ques- 
tion of  color  shall  not  be  considered.  Lengths  in  this 
grade  to  be  1  foot  and  up. 

Select — May  contain  bright  sap,  and  will  admit  pin- 
worm  holes,  slight  imperfections  in  dressing,  or  a  small 
tight  knot,  not  to  exceed  1  to  every  3  feet  in  length; 
lengths  to  be  1  foot  and  up. 

Plain-Sawed  Oak  Flooring 

Clear — Shall  have  one  face  practically  free  from 
defects,  except  %  of  an  inch  of  bright  sap ;  the  question 
of  color  shall  not  be  considered;  lengths  in  this  grade 
to  be  2  feet  and  up,  not  to  exceed  15  per  cent  under  4 
feet. 

Select — May  contain  bright  sap,  and  will  admit  pin- 
worm  holes,  slight  imperfections  in  dressing,  or  a  small, 
tight  knot,  not  to  exceed  1  to  every  3  feet  in  length; 
lengths  to  be  1  foot  and  up. 

No.  1  Common — Shall  be  of  such  nature  as  will  make 
and  lay  a  sound  floor  without  cutting.  Lengths  1  foot 
and  up. 

Factory — May  contain  every  character  of  defects,  but 
will  lay  a  serviceable  floor  with  some  cutting.  Lengths 
1  foot  and  up. 

Standard  Thicknesses  and  Widths  of  Oak  Flooring 

•Jf-inch  thickness;  widths  l^-inch  face  and  21/4-inch 
face. 


138  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

%-inch  thickness ;  widths  l^-inch  face  and  2-inch  face. 

The  1^-inch  face  makes  a  better,  more  serviceable, 
and  handsomer  floor  than  any  other  width.  The  shad- 
ing of  the  figure  of  the  wood  may  be  blended  more  har- 
moniously than  when  the  wider  strips  are  used.  The 
laying  waste  in  the  {fxl^-inch  face  is  less  than  2-inch 
face,  as  it  is  counted  y2  inch  for  the  tongue  and  groove ; 
whereas,  in  the  broader  widths,  it  is  counted  %  inch.  The 
cost  per  thousand  feet  is  less  than  in  the  wider  widths, 
which  offsets  additional  cost  for  labor  in  laying. 

The  2-inch  and  21/4-inch  faces  are  the  widths  more 
generally  used  in  H-inch  thickness ;  and  in  %-inch  thick- 
ness, either  1^-inch  or  2-inch  face,  as  conditions 
demand  it. 

Use  of  Different  Grades  of  Oak  Flooring 

Clear,  Quarter-Sawed,  Red  or  White— High-class  resi- 
dences, hotels,  apartment  houses,  and  club  houses. 

Sap  Clear,  Select;  Quartered,  Red  or  White — An 
economical  substitute  for  Clear  Quartered  where  a  dark 
finish  is  desired.  These  grades  make  a  flooring  equally 
as  durable  as  the  first  grade. 

Clear,  Plain-Sawed,  Redi  or  White — High-class  resi- 
dences, hotels,  apartment  houses^  churches,  and  club 
houses. 

Select  Plain-Sawed,  Red  or  White — Medium-priced 
residences,  hotels  and  apartments;  schools,  office  build- 
ings, and  stores. 

No.  1  Common — Cheap  dwellings,  tenements,  stores, 
high-class  factories  and  manufacturers'  buildings. 

Factory — Warehouses,  factories,  and  cheap  tenements. 

How  to  Determine  Amount  of  Flooring  Required 
To  cover  a  certain  space,  figure  the  number  of  square 
feet,  which  means  the  width  multiplied  by  the  length; 
for  instance,  a  room  12  feet  wide  by  15  feet  long  would 
contain  12x15—180  square  feet.  Add  to  the  square  feet 
of  surface  to  be  covered,  the  following  percentages: 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  139 

33  1/3%  for ii  x  1%  inch 

37  1/2%  for it  x  2  inch. 

33  1/3%  for i§  x  2  &  inch 

33  1/3%  for %x  iy2  inch 

25%          for  .  .  .  , %x  2  inch 

The  above  figures  are  based  on  laying  flooring  straight 
across  the  room.  Where  there  are  bay  windows,  hearths, 
and  other  projections,  allowance  should  be  made  for  ex- 
cessive cutting. 

Laying  Oak  Floors 

The  laying  of  oak  flooring  is  not  very  difficult.  Any 
first-class  carpenter  can  make  a  good  job.  Some  judg- 
ment and  care  is  very  necessary  in  order  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

A  sub-floor  should  be  used  under  both  the  ^f-inch  and 
%-inch  thicknesses.  The  sub-floor  should  be  reasonably 
dry  and  laid  diagonally.  Boards  about  6  inches  wide 
are  preferred.  These  boards  should  not  be  put  down 
too  tight,  and  should  be  thoroughly  dried  off  and  cleaned 
before  the  oak  flooring  is  laid. 

It  is  well  to  use  a  damp-proof  paper  between  the  oak 
flooring  and  the  sub-floor.  Where  sound-proof  results 
are  desired,  a  heavy  deadening  felt  is  recommended. 

Oak  flooring  should  be  laid  at  an  angle  to  the  sub-floor. 
After  laying  and  nailing  three  or  four  pieces,  use  a  short 
piece  of  hardwood  2x4  placed  against  the  tongue,  and 
drive  it  up. 

The  nailing  of  oak  flooring  is  very  important.  All 
tongued-and-grooved  oak  flooring  should  be  blind-nailed. 
The  best  floor  made  can  be  spoiled  by  the  use  of  improper 
nails.  The  steel  cut  variety  is  recommended  for  all  blind- 
nailing. 

For  ^f-inch  use  8  penny  steel  cut  flooring  nail. 

For  %-inch,  use  3  penny  wire  finishing  nail. 

The  maximum  distance  between  the  nails  should  be: 

For  ^f-inch  thickness,  16  inches. 

For  %-inch  thickness,  10  inches. 


140  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

For  even  better  results,  it  is  recommended  that  the 
nails  be  driven  closer  than  indicated. 

Scraping  Oak  Floors 

After  the  oak  flooring  is  laid  and  thoroughly  swept,  it 
is  better  to  scrape  it,  in  order  to  get  the  best  results  for 
a  nicely  polished  surface.  This  scraping  process  can  be 
done  by  the  ordinary  scrapers,  such  as  used  by  cabinet- 
makers, or  by  one  of  the  many  types  of  power  or  hand 
scraping  machines  that  are  generally  used  by  contractors 
and  carpenters.  Always  scrape  lengthwise  of  the  wood, 
and  not  across  the  grain.  A  floor  properly  scraped 
looks  very  smooth,  but  it  should  be  thoroughly  gone 
over  with  No.  1^  sandpaper  to  obtain  the  best  results 
in  finishing.  After  this,  the  floor  should  be  swept  clean, 
and  the  dust  removed  with  a  soft  cloth.  The  floor  is 
now  ready  for  the  finish. 

Finishing  Oak  Floors 

The  finishing  of  an  oak  floor  is  a  very  important  fea- 
ture, upon  which  authorities  fail  to  agree ;  but  the  ques- 
tion resolves  into  a  matter  of  cost,  as  to  the  color  or 
brilliancy  of  finish  desired.  Personal  taste  and  artistic 
or  decorative  effects  are  the  guide  for  the  floor  finisher. 

The  "Clear"  grade  of  oak  flooring  should  have  a  nat- 
ural oak  filler — color  of  oak.  For  the  "Select"  and 
"Sap  Clear"  grades,  a  light  golden  oak  filler  should  be 
used ;  and,  after  the  floor  is  filled,  it  should  be  gone  over 
with  a  little  burnt  umber  mixed  with  turpentine,  to 
darken  light  streaks.  This  will  make  the  "Select"  and 
"Sap  Clear"  grades  look  like  the  "Clear"  grade,  ex- 
cept that  it  will  be  slightly  darker  in  color.  In  filling 
the  "No.  1  Common"  grade,  a  dark  golden  oak  filler 
should  be  employed;  and  the  light  streaks  should  be 
darkened  in  the  same  manner  as  the  "Select"  and  "Sap 
Clear"  grades.  If  a  little  care  is  used  in  laying  this 
grade,  splendid  results  can  be  obtained. 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  141 

First,  treat  the  floor  with  a  paste  filler  of  desired  tone, 
to  fill  up  the  pores  and  crevices.  To  thin  the  filler  for 
application,  one  has  a  choice  of  using  turpentine,  ben- 
zine, wood  alcohol,  or  gasoline  to  get  the  right  consist- 
ency. When  the  gloss  has  left  the  filler,  rub  off  with 
excelsior  or  cloth,  rubbing  against  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  This  will  make  a  perfectly  smooth  and  level  sur- 
face. It  keeps  out  dirt  and  forms  a  good  foundation, 
which  is  the  keynote  for  successful  treatment  of  floors. 
Allow  the  filler  twelve  hours  to  set  or  dry  before  apply- 
ing a  wax  or  varnish  finish.  Never  use  a  liquid  filler  on 
any  floor. 

A  wax  or  varnish  finish  can  be  used.  The  wax  finish 
is  preferred  by  many,  due  to  economy  and  ease  of 
renewing  places  that  show  the  wear.  The  renewing  can 
be  easily  applied  by  housekeeper  or  servant. 

Wax  Finish — The  best  method  for  applying  the  wax 
is  to  take  cheesecloth,  and  double  it  to  get  a  little  more 
thickness ;  then  make  it  into  a  sort  of  bag.  Put  a  hand- 
ful of  wax  inside  of  this,  and  go  over  the  floor  thoroughly. 
You  will  find  that  you  can  work  the  wax  through  the 
meshes  of  the  cheesecloth  to  give  an  even  coating  over 
the  floor.  This  prevents  too  much  wax  in  spots  and 
wasting  it.  After  the  floor  has  been  gone  over  with 
the  wax  and  allowed  to  dry  say  about  twenty  minutes, 
it  is  ready  for  polishing.  Rub  to  a  polish  with  a  weighted 
floor  brush,  first  across  the  grain  of  the  wood,  then 
with  it.  (A  clean,  soft  cloth  can  be  used  in  place  of  the 
brush  if  desired.)  Then  a  piece  of  woolen  felt  or  car- 
pet should  be  placed  under  the  brush  to  give  the  finish- 
ing gloss.  After  waiting  an  hour,  a  second  coat  of  wax 
should  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as  the  first,  and 
rubbed  to  a  polish. 

Varnish  Finish — This  is  usually  more  expensive  than 
the  wax  finish;  but  it  gives  a  very  hard  surface,  yet  at 
the  same  time  it  is  elastic.  Two  or  three  coats  should  be 
applied  after  the  application  of  the  paste  filler.  Each 


142  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

coat  should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  with  oil  and  pumice. 
Any  of  the  standard  hardwood  flooring  varnishes  are 
recommended. 

Floor  Oil  Finish — When  a  high-class  finish  is  not 
desired,  a  very  economical  finish  can  be  had  by  the  use  of 
a  light  flooring  oil  that  is  made  expressly  for  this  pur- 
pose by  many  paint  and  varnish  houses  and  oil  makers, 
It  serves  as  a  filler  as  well  as  a  finish,  and  is  strongly 
recommended  for  oak  flooring  in  public  institutions, 
office  buildings  and  stores.  This  oil  keeps  the  dust  from 
rising  and  preserves  the  floor. 

Care  of  Oak  Floors 

If  one  only  knows  how,  nothing  is  easier  than  the  care 
of  a  well-finished  oak  floor.  Water  should  never  be  used 
on  a  waxed  or  varnished  floor.  The  surface  may  safely 
be  wiped  with  a  cloth  dampened  in  tepid  water  to  re- 
move dirt  and  dust ;  but  the  dampness  should  be  imme- 
diately taken  up  with  a  dry  cloth. 

One  of  the  best  mixtures  for  keeping  a  floor  in  good 
condition  is  the  use  of  equal  parts  of  sweet  oil,  tur- 
pentine, and  vinegar  well  mixed,  and  rubbed  on  the 
floor  with  waste  or  a  cotton  or  woolen  rag.  The  vine- 
gar will  cut  the  dirt  or  grime  worked  into  the  finish 
from  shoes  j  the  sweet  oil  produces  a  luster  and  the 
turpentine  promptly  dries  the  moisture. 

The  above  mixture  need  not  be  applied  oftener  than 
once  a  month  to  insure  a  floor  finish  that  will  resemble 
the  sheen  of  a  piano. 

Should  wax  finish  become  worn  in  spots  from  hard 
usage,  a  little  of  this  mixture  thoroughly  rubbed  will 
renew  the  finish  quickly. 

The  occasional  use  of  a  weighted  floor  brush,  alone  or 
with  a  piece  of  Brussels  carpet  placed  beneath  it,  will 
assist  in  keeping  the  finish  of  an  oak  floor  in  good  con- 
dition. 

Once  a  year,  it  is  well  to  use  a  good  floor  wax,  and 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  143 

nib  it  into  the  floor  with  the  aid  of  a  brush,  with  or  with- 
out a  piece  of  carpet  attached.  Before  the  finish  is  worn 
down  to  the  wood,  an  additional  coat  of  wax  should  be 
applied  and  thoroughly  rubbed. 

Economical  Use  of  Oak  Flooring 

As  rugs  are  used  almost  universally  in  homes  and 
offices,  an  economical  plan  is  to  have  the  center  section  of 
the  room  laid  with  oak  flooring  of  a  cheaper  grade,  and 
to  employ  the  better  grade  in  the  border.  After  the  rug 
is  laid,  all  parts  of  the  floor  will  have  the  same  appear- 
ance. A  room,  say  10  by  12  feet,  can  have  a  2-foot  border 
of  Clear  (first  quality),  either  Plain  or  Quartered;  and 
in  the  center  section  6x8-inch  Select  Plain  could  be  em- 
ployed. In  a  center  section  of  this  size,  15  per  cent  of 
the  cost  could  be  saved  by  using  Select  Plain.  By  using 
a  little  care  in  finishing  up  the  Select,  this  grade  can  be 
made  to  look  very  much  like  the  Clear  grade.  This 
makes  quite  a  saving,  and  is  being  done  very  exten- 
sively. 

Oak  flooring  of  %-inch  thickness  by  l^-ineh  or  2-inch 
faces  can  be  laid  over  old  floors  in  old  homes,  or  over 
cheap  sub-floors  in  new  homes  very  economically.  It  is 
cheaper  than  carpets,  and  will  improve  the  appearance 
and  sanitation  of  an  old  or  new  house  more  than  the 
expenditure  of  double  the  amount  of  money  any  other 
way. 

YELLOW  PINE  AND  DOUGLAS  FIR 
FLOORS 

Edge-grain  or  quarter-sawed  yellow  pine  and 
Douglas  fir  flooring  are  widely  used  for  many 
of  the  same  purposes  as  hardwood  flooring.  The 
Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association  rec- 
ommends a  hard  oil  finish  for  yellow  pine  floors 
in  stores;  a  shellaced,  varnished,  and  rubbed,  or 
shellaced  and  rubbed  finish  for  yellow  pine 


144  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

floors  in  apartments,  residences,  hospitals,  etc.; 
and  for  bowling  alleys  and  dance  halls,  several 
coats  of  varnish,  rubbed  and  sanded  between 
each  coat,  while  sometimes  the  varnished  sur- 
face is  also  waxed  very  lightly  and  rubbed  down. 
For  the  treatment  of  yellow  pine  floors,  the  As- 
sociation gives  the  following  directions  which 
are  based  upon  the  experience  of  many  archi- 
tects: 

Finishing  of  Yellow  Pine  Floors 

Never  lay  a  yellow  pine  floor  until  the  plastering  in 
the  building  is  on  the  wall  and  thoroughly  dry.  Yellow 
pine  floors  should  be  smoothed,  hand-scraped,  and  sand- 
papered with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  left  in  perfect 
condition  to  receive  the  work  of  the  painter  the  same 
as  any  other  hardwood  floor. 

To  make  a  good  finish,  use  only  the  best  materials  and 
skilled  labor. 

The  close,  hard  fiber  of  Southern  yellow  pine  renders 
a  paste  filler  undesirable.  Use  the  very  best  liquid 
wood  filler;  a  thin  shellac  filler  is  more  desirable  how- 
ever, although  the  cost  is  somewhat  greater.  Shellac 
requires  several  hours  to  dry  perfectly. 

The  finishing  coat  for  a  varnished  floor  should  be  of 
the  best  elastic  floor  varnish. 

Varnished  and  Polished  Floor.  Prepare  a  clean, 
smooth  surface;  and,  if  stain  is  required,  apply  a  coat 
of  the  desired  stain  on  the  bare  surface  of  the  wood. 
Wipe  off  with  cotton  waste  or  cheesecloth  to  prevent 
raise  of  grain.  Sand  lightly  with  No.  0  sandpaper,  and 
apply  a  thin  coat  of  white  shellac  dissolved  in  grain  al- 
cohol; then  sand  again  with  fine  sandpaper,  and  pro- 
ceed with  the  finish  in  the  regular  way,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  floor  varnish.  To  produce  as  fine  a  surface  as 


•$  £ 
b  I 


HARDWOOD  FLOORING  145 

on  oak,  each  coat  of  floor  varnish,  should  be  rubbed. 
Wax  may  be  applied  to  the  varnish  surface  if  desired. 

Dull  or  Waxed  Floor.  After  a  clean,  smooth  sur- 
face of  the  wood  has  been  obtained,  apply  a  coat  of  the 
desired  stain  (a  neutral  tint  preferred),.  Wipe  off  with 
cotton  waste  or  cheesecloth,  to  prevent  the  wood  ab- 
sorbing too  much  moisture.  When  the  stain  is  thor- 
oughly dry,  seal  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  a  thin 
coat  of  white  shellac.  When  dry,  sand  lightly  with  No. 
0  sandpaper,  apply  second  coat  of  thin  shellac,  and,  when 
dry  apply  with  a  soft,  dry  cloth  a  generous  coat  of  wax. 
Rub  wax  thoroughly  into  the  surface  with  dry  cloth  or 
regular  floor  polisher. 

The  former  way  of  waxing  a  floor  omitted  wood  filler, 
shellac,  or  varnish,  but  included  several  coats  of  wax  or 
oil  thoroughly  rubbed  into  the  surface  of  the  wood.  The 
effect  produced  a  polished  but  not  a  hard  surface,  and 
soon  discolored  from  dust  and  dirt. 

Hard  Oil  Floor.  Properly  clean  and  carefully  smooth 
the  floor  surface;  coat  it  over  with  boiling  hot  linseed 
oil,  tinted  such  shade  as  will  bring  the  sap  and  lighter 
shades  to  the  heart  color,  allowing  it  to  stand  until 
thoroughly  hardened  before  being  exposed;  give  a  sec- 
ond coat  of  the  same  materials,  tinted  as  above  men- 
tioned; sandpaper,  and  finish  with  floor  wax  or  first- 
class  floor  varnish.  If  wax  is  used,  it  must  be  thor- 
oughly rubbed  into  the  surface.  If  varnish  is  used,  each 
coat  should  be  carefully  rubbed  down. 

Varnished  Floor.  Properly  clean,  scrape,  and  dust 
the  floor  surface  insisting  upon  same  a^ention  as  is 
given  to  hardwood.  Apply  one  coat  of  ?;0-  quality  floor 
varnish ;  slightly  cut  with  turpentine,  allow  mg  it  to  set  48 
hours.  When  thoroughly  dry,  sandpaper  lightly  with 
No.  0  paper,  and  remove  dust;  apply  second  coat  of  the 
same  good  floor  varnish,  full  strength,  this  in  turn  to 
stand  until  dry  and  hard;  sandpaper  lightly,  and  clean 
floor  as  before.  Apply  a  third  coat  of  varnish,  full 


146  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

strength;  and  either  leave  in  gloss,  or  rub  to  a  dull 
finish,  as  owner  may  direct. 

The  specifications  for  finishing  yellow  pine 
floors  apply  equally  well  to  Douglas  fir  floors. 


FIRE-RESISTANCE 

THE  fact  that  wood  will  burn  if  heated  hot 
enough,  has  been  the  basis  of  a  great  hue 
and  cry  against  wood  by  certain  interests 
whose  purposes  would  be  better  served  were 
wood  completely  banished  from  all  forms  of 
construction.    Just    at    present    the    agitation 
against  the  use  of  shingles  in  cities  has  gone 
so  far  that  an  individual  whose  main  business 
is  propaganda  declares  that  a  shingle  roof  is 
"not  a  covering  but  a  crime."    As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  the  records  generally  show  that 
a  larger  proportion  of  fires  in  the  United  States 
are  due  to  carelessness  than  to  any  one  form  or 
material  of  construction.    Moreover,  for  many 
medium-sized  factory  buildings,  what  is  called 
"standard  mill  construction"  is  more  desirable 
than  so-called  "fireproof"  construction.    With 
proper  safeguards,  there  is  little  danger  from 
fire  in  mill-constructed  buildings;  and  struc- 
tures of  this  type  have  been  known  in  a  num- 
ber of  instances  to  stand  up  better  under  fire 
than  have  buildings  of  similar  character  with 
steel  framework. 

NATURAL  FIRE-RESISTANCE 

Not  all  woods  are  susceptible  to  fire  in  the 
same  degree.  Indeed,  at  the  lower  tempera- 
tures, there  is  a  considerable  range  between 

147 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


3  S  8  8 

•UmilN-OUIini  S333U  3HOJ31  3MI1  39VH3AV 


FIRE-RESISTANCE  149 

the  different  woods  in  the  resistance  which  they 
offer  to  ignition.  Still  further,  the  ease  with 
which  wood  burns  depends  upon  its  moisture 
content,  a  piece  of  dry  wood  catching  fire,  of 
course,  much  more  quickly  than  a  moist  piece. 
The  United  States  Forest  Service  has  recently 
concluded  an  interesting  series  of  tests  upon 
the  natural  fire-resistance  of  a  number  of  spe- 
cies of  timber.  The  results  of  these  tests  are 
shown  graphically  in  charts  on  pages  148  and 
150.  It  will  be  noted  from  these  tests,  that  in 
the  case  of  the  Western  woods,  Western  larch 
resisted  ignition  longest;  and  that  among  the 
Eastern  woods,  tamarack  or  Eastern  larch  held 
the  same  position.  In  fact,  tamarack  seems  to 
be  the  most  fire-resistant  of  eight  woods  tested. 
Curve  A  shows  for  example,  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  expose  a  piece  of  air-dry  tamarack  to 
a  temperature  above  205°  C.  (or  401°  F.)  for 
40  minutes,  in  order  to  make  it  burn;  while 
Curve  F  shows  that  a  piece  of  oven-dry  longleaf 
pine  ignited  in  15  minutes  at  a  temperature  of 
175°  C.  (or  347°  F.).  On  the  other  hand,  air- 
dry  tamarack  and  air-dry  longleaf  pine  were 
both  held  at  a  temperature  of  180°  C.  (or  356° 
F.)  for  40  minutes,  without  ignition.  When, 
however,  the  temperature  became  as  great  as 
350°  C.  (or  662°  F.),  there  was  little  difference 
in  any  of  the  species  in  resistance  to  ignition. 

ARTIFICIAL  FIRE-RESISTANCE 

The  attacks  which  have  been  made  upon  wood 


150 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Ill 

:°« 


g      k.        I    I   T  T 


FIRE-RESISTANCE  151 

as  a  building  material,  and  the  desire  to  increase 
its  fire-resistance,  have  greatly  stimulated  stud- 
ies to  devise  a  cheap  and  effective  means  of 
fireproofing  timber.  It  has  been  known,  of 
course,  for  many  years,  that  wood  can  be  impreg- 
nated with  salts  which  will  make  it  practically 
incombustible;  and  such  fireproof ed  wood  has 
been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  interior 
work  for  a  long  time.  This,  however,  is  quite 
different  from  the  general  fireproofing  of  shin- 
gles and  of  wood  used  in  building  exteriors 
where  it  is  subject  to  all  the  action  of  the  ele- 
ments. It  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  the  dis- 
covery of  a  fire-resisting  material  as  it  is  the 
invention  of  processes  by  which  large  quanti- 
ties of  lumber  can  be  quickly  and  cheaply  fire- 
proofed.  Both  private  and  governmental  agen- 
cies are  actively  at  work  on  the  subject,  and  no 
doubt  important  results  will  soon  be  forthcom- 
ing. 

The  Forest  Service  experiments  with  chem- 
ical fire  retardants  have  included  tests  of  sodium 
carbonate,  soda  bicarbonate,  oxalic  acid,  borax, 
and  ammonium  chloride.  The  first  three  did 
not  prove  efficient  in  retarding  combustion,  and 
they  also  weakened  the  wood.  Borax  has  been 
found  to  have  considerable  value  for  fireproof- 
ing purposes,  while  wood  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  ammonium  salts  could  not  be  ignited 
under  the  Service  conditions  of  test.  The  prog- 
ress which  has  been  made  along  this  line  as  the 
result  of  only  a  short  period  of  experimenta- 


152        t  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

tion,  leads  the  Forest  Service  engineers  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  is  possible  to  devise  a  reason- 
ably inexpensive  method  of  fireproofing  wood, 
while  firms  already  in  the  market  claim  that  it 
is  possible  to  do  this  on  a  commercial  scale.  It 
is  not  likely,  therefore,  that  the  opponents  of 
wood  construction  will  much  longer  be  able  to 
maintain  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  wood 
resistant  to  fire  where  fireproof  construction  is 
necessary. 

COMMERCIAL  FIREPROOFING 

The  fireproofing  of  wood  on  a  commercial 
scale  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  F.  C.  Schmitz, 
Vice-President  of  the  Standard  Wood  Treating 
Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. : 

The  fireproofing  of  wood,  as  at  present  practiced  com- 
mercially, is  accomplished  by  saturating  its  fibers  with  a 
water  solution  of  chemicals  which,  in  the  presence  of  fire, 
emit  a  gas  that  prevents  combustion.  To  accomplish  this, 
the  wood  to  be  treated  is  loaded  on  suitable  cars,  and 
placed  in  a  cylinder  from  which  the  air  is  exhausted. 
The  above-mentioned  solution  is  then  let  into  and  com- 
pletely fills  the  cylinder.  Hydraulic  pressure  is  then 
applied,  by  means  of  a  pump,  of  such  a  degree  and  for 
sufficient  time  to  force  the  chemical  solution  into  and 
through  the  wood,  to  the  point  of  saturation.  Upon 
reaching  this  latter  point,  the  cylinder  is  drained  of  solu- 
tion, and  the  lumber  removed. 

When  it  is  necessary  that  the  treated  lumber  shall  be 
thoroughly  dry  before  it  can  be  used,  it  is  kiln-dried  to 
evaporate  the  water  in  the  solution,  leaving  the  chemicals 
in  the  pores  of  the  wood  in  dry  crystal  form. 

It  is  not  claimed  for  the  product  that  it  is  fireproof  in 


FIRE-RESISTANCE  153 

the  sense  of  being,  like  firebrick,  indestructible  in  the 
presence  of  fire,  but  that  it  will  not  support  or  communi- 
cate combustion.  Any  organic  substance  will  be  de- 
stroyed by  fire  if  left  in  its  presence  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time. 

An  important  fact  in  connection  with  the  use  of  fire- 
proof wood,  is  that  it  is  fireproofed  with  water-soluble 
chemicals ;  and  therefore,  if,  after  treatment,  it  is  exposed 
to  water  (such  as  rain),  the  chemicals  again  dissolve  and 
are  removed  from  the  wood,  with  a  consequent  reduction 
in  its  resistance  to  fire.  Any  wood,  therefore,  intended 
for  outside  use,  should  be  protected  from  the  weather 
by  a  waterproof  coating,  such  as  paint  or  varnish. 

Fireproof  wood  has  been  used  largely  for  interior  work, 
and  principally  in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  the 
Building  Code  provides  for  its  use  in  all  buildings  over 
150  feet  or  twelve  stories  in  height.  It  has,  however,  had 
a  considerable  use  in  residences  and  in  various  trades,  for 
special  purposes. 

The  treatment  is  permanent  so  long  as  no  water  is 
permitted  to  soak  into  the  wood ;  and  samples  taken  from 
buildings  after  fifteen  years'  service  show  as  good  re- 
sults as  freshly  treated  lumber.  The  treatment  slightly 
hardens  and  in  some  cases  darkens  the  wood.  It  does  not, 
however,  affect  its  strength  or  impair  its  beauty. 

The  process  is  comparatively  inexpensive,  when  results 
are  considered;  and  ultimately  its  use  must  be  wide- 
spread, especially  in  isolated  buildings  where  fire-fight- 
ing facilities  are  not  of  the  best,  and  where  fire  would 
result  in  large  damage  to  business. 

Many  corporations  and  firms  in  the  East  are  now  be- 
ginning to  realize  this  point,  and  there  is  a  constantly 
increasing  demand  for  the  product  for  such  uses. 

FIRE-RETARDANT  PAINTS  FOR 
SHINGLES 

Under  this  title,  Henry  A.  Gardner,  Assistant 


154  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Director  of  the  Institute  of  Industrial  Research, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  discusses  the  latest  results 
of  his  tests  of  fire-resistant  paints  as  applied  to 
shingles.  In  the  first  place,  he  calls  attention 
to  the  low  heat  conductivity  of  a  shingle  roof 
in  the  following  language: 

"The  writer  conducted  a  series  of  laboratory  tests 
to  determine  the  heat  deflecting  properties  of  various 
types  of  roofing  materials.  Miniature  houses  were  roofed 
with  bare  shingles,  painted  shingles,  tin,  and  stone.  Ther- 
mometers were  inserted  in  the  end  of  each  house.  The 
houses  were  placed  in  an  oven  heated  to  150°  C.  At  the 
end  of  15  minutes,  thermometric  readings  were  taken. 
The  interior  of  the  houses  roofed  with  stone  and  tin 
showed  a  much  higher  temperature  than  those  roofed 
with  shingles.  The  house  with  the  roof  covered  with 
painted  shingles  showed  the  lowest  temperature.  On 
account  of  the  heat  deflecting  properties  of  shingles, 
they  will  probably  always  find  a  wide  application  in 
warm  climates.  Shingled  dwellings  are  much  cooler  in 
the  summer  than  iron-clad  or  stone-roofed  dwellings." 

After  mentioning  the  usual  objections  that 
are  made  to  shingle  roofs  as  sources  of  fire  dan- 
ger, Mr.  Gardner  continues: 

"Although  the  writer  has  pointed  out  in  the  forego- 
ing discussion,  the  many  disadvantages  of  the  wooden 
shingle,  the  situation  is  not  as  serious  as  it  might  at  first 
appear.  Very  few  structural  materials  have  ever  been 
made  which  have  proved  satisfactory  for  roofing  or  other 
building  purposes,  without  some  surface  treatment.  If 
iron  or  steel  sheets  are  exposed  to  the  weather,  they  will 
rapidly  corrode  and  rust  away  to  a  mere  -lace-like  skel- 
eton of  their  original  form.  The  application  of  suit- 


FIRE-RESISTANCE  155 

able  paint  coatings  at  proper  intervals,  will,  however, 
preserve  such  metal  sheets  for  an  indefinite  period  of 
time.  Nearly  all  forms  of  cement  or  stone  work  will 
check,  crack,  absorb  large  quantities  of  moisture, 
and  become  unpleasing  in  appearance,  unless  properly 
treated  with  protective  paints.  The  weather-boarding 
and  wooden  trim  of  all  kinds  of  structures  would  soon 
rot  and  decay  if  left  in  an  unpainted  condition.  It  is 
evident  that  "paint  is  the  preserver  of  all  things  struc- 
tural," and  that  we  must  look  to  the  use  of  paint  for 
the  solution  of  the  problems  under  consideration. 

Two  Groups  of  Fire-Retarding  Paints 

"Fire-retarding  paints  may  properly  be  divided  into 
two  groups,  one  of  which  is  represented  by  oil-mineral 
paints,  and  the  other  by  paints  which  do  not  contain 
oil.  The  term  "mineral  paint"  refers  to  that  type  of 
paint  which  is  so  widely  used  throughout  the  rural  dis- 
tricts to  decorate  and  preserve  dwellings,  barns,  and 
similar  outbuildings.  In  the  manufacture  of  these  pre- 
pared mineral  paints,  various  mineral  pigments  in  a 
finely  divided  and  carefully  prepared  form  are  ground 
in  linseed  oil,  and  mixed  with  the  proper  driers  and  thin- 
ners.  The  content  of  mineral  pigment  in  such  paints 
varies  from  50  per  cent  to  70  per  cent  of  the  total. 
When  such  paints  are  applied  to  shingles,  a  very  dura- 
ble, waterproof  film  results.  This  film  of  dried  paint 
upon  the  surface  of  a  shingle  has  the  effect  of  laying 
or  smoothing  down  the  rough,  fuzzy  surface  of  the  wood, 
thus  eliminating  at  once  an  important  source  of  fire 
danger.  The  paint  film,  moreover,  is  quite  as  resistant 
to  moisture  as  a  sheet  of  India  rubber.  The  shingled 
dwelling  upon  which  such  paint  has  been  used  is  practi- 
cally rain-proof.  It  is,  moreover,  made  very  attractive 
in  appearance. 

"Another  important  function  is  performed  by  the. 
paint,  in  preventing  the  warping  of  shingles  at  the  edge, 


156  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

thus  doing  away  with,  the  formation  of  pockets  in  which 
hot  cinders  might  lodge  and  burn. 

"The  fourth  and  most  valuable  characteristic  of  min- 
eral paint  is  its  resistance  to  fire.  While  the  oil  content 
is  more  or  less  combustible,  there  is  present  in  the  dried 
paint  film  a  minor  proportion  of  oil,  the  major  propor- 
tion consisting  of  mineral  pigments  which  are  unaf- 
fected by  fire.  A  hot  cinder  or  spark,  falling  upon  a 
roof  properly  treated  with  a  high-grade  mineral  paint, 
would,  in  most  instances,  roll  from  the  roof  to  the  ground. 
There  would  be  no  pockets  in  which  to  lodge  and  burn. 
In  the  event  of  hot  cinders  falling  with  great  force 
upon  relatively  flat  roofs,  the  cinders  would  probably 
lodge  upon  the  surface  and  burn  away  the  superficial 
coating  of  dried  oil,  gradually  dying  out  as  they  reached 
the  fire-resisting  mineral  pigment. 

"Prepared  mineral  paints  of  good  grade  may  be  ob- 
tained at  a  moderate  price  at  any  modern  paint  shop. 
They  are,  therefore,  within  the  reach  of  anyone  who 
desires  to  use  them  for  protecting  shingled  structures.  If 
made  by  a  reputable  manufacturer,  the  purchaser  may 
be  sure  that  they  are  prepared  from  properly  selected 
mineral  pigments,  carefully  mixed  with  oil,  and  finely 
ground,  through  rapidly  revolving  stone  and  steel  mills, 
to  a  smooth  condition.  For  coating  shingles  by  dipping, 
such  paints  could  be  furnished  in  a  thinner  condition 
than  for  brushing.  It  is  the  writer's  belief,  however, 
that  better  results  will  be  obtained  if  a  heavy  coat  of 
paint  is  brushed  upon  the  shingles,  as  in  this  case  a 
greater  amount  of  paint  will  become  embedded  within 
the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  the  dried  coating  will  con- 
tain a  greater  percentage  of  fire-resisting  mineral. 

Value  of  Impregnation  Process 

"It  is  obvious  that  the  application  of  brush  coats  of 
any  of  the  above  named  salts  to  wooden  shingles  would 
not  result  in  the  formation  of  weather-resisting  surfaces. 


FIRE-RESISTANCE  157 

It  is  the  writer's  belief,  however,  that  a  shingle  manu- 
facturer can  at  moderate  cost  impregnate  shingles  with 
certain  mineral  salts  which  will  make  them  more  re- 
sistant to  fire.  "Wooden  beams  and  railroad  ties  are 
often  rendered  more  durable  by  treatment  with  preser- 
vatives possessed  of  fungicidal  properties,  such,  for 
instance,  as  creosote  or  zinc  chloride.  These  chemical  sub- 
stances are  forced  deeply  into  the  wood  by  special  proc- 
esses. It  would,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  be  practicable 
for  the  shingle  manufacturer  to  adopt  a  similar  process 
for  mineralizing  shingles.  Mineral  salts  having  a  high 
resistance  to  fire  could  be  used  for  the  impregnation 
base.  Shingles  thus  mineralized  could  be  rendered  still 
more  resistant  to  fire  by  subsequently  applying  a  coat 
of  mineral  paint.  The  writer  has  experimented  with 
various  salts  for  this  purpose,  and  has  treated  shingles 
with  their  solutions,  both  by  brushing  and  by  dipping. 

"Shingles  thus  treated  have  shown  much  greater 
resistance  to  fire.  The  best  results  were  obtained  by 
mineralizing  the  shingles  and  subsequently  coating 
them  with  mineral  paint.  The  mineralizing  process  of 
making  the  wooden  shingle  thoroughly  safe  as  a  roofing 
material  should  be  carried  out  in  two  steps.  The  shin- 
gle manufacturer  should  undertake  the  first  process  of 
treating  the  shingle  with  fire-resisting  salts.  If  shingles 
thus  impregnated  are  furnished  the  builder,  it  is  quite 
certain  that  he  will  carry  out  the  second  and  most 
important  part  of  the  process,  which  consists  in  applying 
a  decorative  and  waterproof  coating  of  fire-resistant 
mineral  paint.  It  will,  of  course,  be  possible  to  use  the 
old-style  creosote  shingle  stain  over  the  mineralized  shin- 
gle, in  place  of  a  mineral  paint.  However,  the  mineral 
paint  will  give  much  more  satisfaction,  as  it  forms  a 
durable,  waterproof  film  which  is  more  resistant  to  fire 
than  an  ordinary  stain." 

Mr.  Gardner  outlines  in  detail  methods  for 


158  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

making  and  testing  fire-retardant  paints,  and 
concludes  the  discussion  with  these  statements: 

"The  shingled  roof  is  highly  desirable  on  account  of 
its  durability,  light  weight,  low  cost,  and  non-conduct- 
ing properties. 

"  Shingled  roofs  are  subject  to  conflagration  when  they 
become  dry.  Hot  cinders  from  chimneys  or  glowing 
sparks  carried  by  the  wind  from  nearby  fires,  are  com- 
mon causes  of  roof  fires. 

"The  use  of  high-grade  mineral  paints  upon  shingled 
roofs  eliminates  such  fire  danger.  Shingled  structures 
of  all  types,  when  properly  painted,  are  not  only  fire- 
resistant,  but  they  are  moisture-proof  and  highly  orna- 
mental. 

"The  painted  shingle  dwelling  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  desirable  types  of  modern  suburban  homes." 


LUMBER  PRICES 

MANY  well-informed  people  have  the 
impression  that  lumber  has  become  so 
scarce  and  high-priced  that  the  ordinary 
man  can  no  longer  afford  to  build  a  wooden 
house.  This  impression,  like  the  agitation 
against  wood  construction  on  account  of  fire 
risk,  has  been  assiduously  cultivated  by  the 
vendors  of  substitute  materials.  It  is  true  that 
certain  grades  of  some  species  of  timber  are 
high-priced,  compared  with  the  price  at  which 
the  same  grades  could  be  obtained  20  to  30  years 
ago;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  still  much 
good  building  material  available  for  every  pur- 
pose, at  reasonable  cost.  While  some  kinds  are 
scarcer  than  they  once  were,  we  are  now  using 
many  valuable  woods  which  were  formerly 
wholly  neglected.  The  last  ten  years  has  seen 
tremendous  advances  in  the  appreciation  of  red 
gum,  beech,  birch,  maple,  and  the  West  Coast 
woods.  While  the  highest  grades  of  nearly  all 
kinds  of  timber  command  high  prices,  because 
only  a  small  amount  of  high-grade  lumber  is 
produced,  we  must  remember  that  the  ordinary 
structural  materials  consist  of  the  medium 
grades,  of  which  there  is  a  much  greater  supply 
than  of  the  higher  grades.  These  medium 
grades  have  not  had  the  same  advance  in  price 
as  the  upper  grades,  owing  both  to  their  abun- 

159 


160 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


TABLE   15 
Average  Mill  Prices  of  Principal  Kinds  of  Lumber 

(Per  thousand  feet,  board  measure) 


1912   1911   1910    1908   1908   1907    1906   1904   1899 


11.05 

S3 

is.se 


16.16 
24.71 
12.26 


15.39 

16.91 
20. 46 
14.80 
19.95 
12.39 

13.10 
13.18 
18.14 


20.50 

£2 

13.20 
16.12 


24.44 
18.05 
11.87 
14.77 
42.79 


ftS? 


15.03 

16.25 
21.30 
15.66 

£8 

11.38 

as 


21.23 
16.30 

£5 

16.27 

18.42 
13.50 
20.50 

£2 


13.38 

14.87 
42.53 


14.02 
14.12 
19.41 
15.53 
15.67 

17.26 
22.12 
17.70 
19.14 
13.07 

15.45 
15.71 
19.84 
16.16 


17.37 
14.30 
20.03 


15.02 
14.20 
18.32 
15.31 
14.01 

17.33 
21.94 
16.64 
18.12 
1L91 


8.4fl 

if:S 

9.98 
9.70 

11.27 

13.32 


17.24 
14.05 

IS.  66 
30.42 


Not  reported  separately. 

dance  and  to  the  competition  of  other  materials. 
The  same  causes  will  prevent  their  advance  to 
excessive  prices  for  many  years  to  come ;  hence 
these  grades  will  continue  for  a  long  time  to  be 
the  chief  reliance  of  builders  in  many  parts  of 
the  country. 

That  the  price  of  lumber  has  not  advanced 
more  than  that  of  many  other  commodities,  and 
in  fact,  is  scarcely  as  high  now  as  it  was  several 
years  ago,  is  shown  by  Table  15,  which  gives  a 
tabulation,  compiled  by  the  Census  Bureau  and 
the  Forest  Service,  of  the  average  values  per 


House  150  years  old,  built  of  Southern  Yellow 
Pine  throughout,  including  siding,  and  still  in  a 
state  of  good  preservation 


House  at  Salem,  Mass.,  sided  with  White  Pine  in 
1684,  and  well  preserved  after  230  years 


Old  English  Blockhouse  on  San  Juan  Island. 
Built  in  1856.  Roof  of  Western  Red  Cedar  shingles 
still  in  good  condition,  after  nearly  60  years'  serv- 
ice without  paint  or  repairs 

Plate   20 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


£  2 

.8  P 

m  ta 

ft  S 

I  1 


LUMBER  PRICES 


161 


thousand  feet  at  the  sawmill,  of  the  principal 
kinds  of  lumber. 

The  statement  that  lumber  has  reached  such 
an  exorbitant  price  that  it  can  no  longer  be  used, 


FARM   PRODUCTS— FOOD  ETC- LUMBER  AND  BUILDING.  MATERIALS 


Fig.   11.     Chart  Showing  Price  Fluctuations  of  Lumber 

and  Building  Materials  as  Compared  with. 

Farm  Products,  Food,  etc. 

is  best  met  by  the  records  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor,  the  authority  on  the  whole- 
sale prices  of  all  commodities.  On  page  149  of 
Bulletin  114  of  the  Bureau  is  given  a  table  of 
the  relative  prices  of  nine  groups  of  commodi- 
ties from  1860  to  1912,  the  average  price  from 
1890  to  1899  being  taken  as  100.  The  chart 


162  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

(Fig.  11)  shows  in  graphic  form  the  record  of 
the  Bureau  for  three  of  the  most  important 
groups  of  commodities — farm  products,  food, 
and  lumber  and  building  materials.  On  the 
chart,  farm  products  are  indicated  by  a  dotted 
line,  food  by  a  line  of  dashes,  and  lumber  and 
building  materials  by  a  solid  line.  A  single 
glance  at  the  chart  completely  answers  the 
statement  as  to  the  undue  advance  in  lumber 
prices.  On  an  average,  these  prices  have  run 
between  the  prices  of  farm  products  and  of  food 
for  the  last  50  years,  and  with  neither  as  high 
points  nor  as  low  points  as  the  two  other  groups. 
Still  further,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  prices  of 
lumber  and  building  materials  are  relatively 
lower  now  than  they  were  40  years  ago;  yet  at 
that  time  no  one  thought  that  lumber  was  too 
expensive  to  build  with. 

COMPARATIVE  BUILDING  COSTS 

Another  way  of  approaching  the  same  prob- 
lem is  through  a  comparison  of  the  cost  of  wood 
construction  with  that  of  other  materials;  and 
here,  again,  lumber  has  nothing  to  fear.  An 
article  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Butterfield 
was  recently  published  in  " House  and  Garden." 
Plans  were  drawn  for  an  average  substantial 
house  for  a  large  family,  to  include  all  modern 
conveniences  and  to  be  built  of  first-class  mate- 
rials and  of  thorough  construction.  The  plans 
and  specifications  were  sent  to  architects  in 
typical  sections  of  the  country,  with  a  request 
that  they  submit  cost  figures  for  the  house  if 


LUMBER  PRICES  163 

built  of  various  materials  in  their  localities. 
These  estimates  were  carefully  averaged  and 
tabulated  as  follows: 

Cost  of  a  Typical  House 

New  York  City  (suburban) $4,300.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 17     cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick 21$  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone    22$  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath. 18     cents 

Vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  10  per  cent  to  15  per  cent  less  than 
near  New  York. 

Maine $3,400.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 14  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    17  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone    20  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 15  cents 

In  the  southern  New  England  States,   the  cost  would  be 
slightly  in  excess  of  the  above. 

Middle  South  (Kentucky,  Maryland,  etc.) $3,000.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame   10  to  12  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick 12  to  14  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 15  to  20  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 11  to  14  cents 

Chicago  (Vicinity  of) $3,800.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 15  to  16  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    18  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 20  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 16  to  17  cents 

Middle  Western  States  (such  as  Ohio,  Michigan,  Iowa, 

and  Wisconsin)    $2,550.00  to  $4,000.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame    10  to  12  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    12$  to   20  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 16  to  25  cents  up 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath.  ...  12  to  18  cents  up 


164  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Pacific  Coast  (Northwest) $2,000.00  to  $3,200.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 8$  to  13  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    9i  to  14  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 14  to  16  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 9  to  14  cents 

Colorado  (average)    $3,100.00  to  $3,200.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 12  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    14  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 15  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 13  cents 

Southwest  (Arizona  and  New  Mexico) . .  .$2,900.00  to  $3,000.00 

Per  cubic  foot,  frame 12  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  brick    13$  to  14  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stone 16  cents 

Per  cubic  foot,  stucco  on  metal  lath 13$  to  14  cents 

Radford  discusses  the  same  problem  on  the 
basis  of  construction  cost,  per  square  yard  of 
finished  wall  surface,  of  frame,  of  plain  brick 
veneer,  and  solid  brick  construction,  on  the 
theory  that  the  roof,  foundations,  floors,  win- 
dows, interior  finish,  etc.,  are  practically  the 
same  in  each  type,  save  that  in  brick  construc- 
tion the  cost  of  stonework  for  sills,  lintels,  etc., 
must  be  added.  His  estimates  for  the  cost  of 
plain  wall  construction  of  the  three  types  are 
as  follows: 

Frame  Construction 

(Per  square  yard  of  finished  wall  surface) 

Dimension  lumber,  8  ft.  B.  M.,  at  4c  per  ft.  (in  wall) $0.32 

Sheathing,  10  ft.  B.  M.,  at  4c  per  ft.  (in  wall) 40 

Siding,  12  ft.  B.  M.,  at  4*c  per  ft.  (in  wall) 54 

Building  paper,  put  on,  per  yard 03 

Painting,  two  coats,  per  yd 18 

Plastering,  three  coats,  per  yd 26 

Total,  per  sq.  yd $1.73 


LUMBER  PRICES  165 

Brick  Veneer  Construction 

(Based  on  cost  of  face  brick  at  $21.00  per  1,000) 

Dimension  lumber,  8  ft.  B.  M.,  at  4c  per  ft.  (in  wall) $0.32 

Sheathing,  10  ft.  B.  M.,  at  4c  per  ft.  (in  wall) 40 

Building  paper,  put  on,  per  yd 03 

63  face  brick,  at  3}c  each  (in  wall) 2.21 

Plastering,  three  coats,  per  yd 26 

Total,  per  sq.  yd $3.22 

Solid  Brick  Construction 

(12  in.  wall) 

63  face  brick,  at  3$c  each  (in  wall) $2.21 

126  common  brick,  at  $14  per  1,000  (in  wall) 1.76 

Furring  walls,  per  yard 06 

Plastering,  three  coats,  per  yd 26 

Total,  per  sq.  yd $4.29 

In  conclusion,  Kadford  states  that,  adding  to 
each  type  of  construction  the  cost  of  floors, 
doors,  roofs,  interior  finish,  etc.,  and  dividing 
by  the  total  number  of  square  yards  of  wall  sur- 
face, it  is  found  that  the  cost  of  brick  veneer 
construction  is  often  20  to  25  per  cent  greater 
than  of  frame  construction,  and  that  solid  brick 
construction  is  about  40  per  cent  more  expen- 
sive than  frame  construction. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  stucco  on  metal  lath 
is  now  cheaper  than  lumber,  for  the  exterior  of 
houses.  There  may  be  cases  in  which  the  first 
costs  compare  favorably.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  stucco  is  not  waterproof, 
that  metal  lath  will  rust  sooner  or  later,  and 
that  this  type  of  construction  has  not  had  a 


166  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

long  enough  period  of  service  behind  it  so  that 
we  can  be  at  all  sure  of  its  permanence.  The 
builder  of  wood  can  point  to  numberless 
instances  of  wooden  siding  on  houses  which  has 
given  good  service  for  50  years  or  more,  and  to 
many  cases  of  durability  of  more  than  100  years. 
So  he  does  not  begrudge  the  occasional  coat  of 
paint  that  the  substitute  advocate  claims  is  not 
necessary  for  his  own  particular  product. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER 

FOR  several  years  the  United  States  Forest 
Service,  in  many  cases  with  the  assist- 
ance of  State  authorities,  has  been  mak- 
ing studies  of  the  more  important  wood-using 
industries,  so  that  there  are  now  available 
printed  reports  covering  nearly  every  State  in 
which  there  are  large  industries  of  this  kind. 
These  reports  deal  chiefly  with  the  consumption 
of  sawed  lumber;  but  a  few  industries  are 
included,  in  which  raw  material  goes  to  the  fac- 
tory in  log  or  bolt  form.  For  such  industries, 
the  wood  consumed  has  been  reduced  to  board 
feet,  to  afford  a  proper  basis  for  comparison 
with  the  requirements  of  other  industries. 
Although  both  the  total  lumber  consumption 
and  the  uses  of  the  various  species  are  unques- 
tionably greater  than  is  indicated  by  the  avail- 
able statistics,  the  figures  presented  are  valua- 
ble for  purposes  of  estimate  and  comparison. 

Grouped  in  order  of  magnitude  and  stated  in 
round  numbers,  it  appears  that  the  present 
annual  wood  consumption  (chiefly  in  the  form 
of  lumber)  for  various  special  purposes,  in  the 
United  States,  is  not  less  than  the  amount  shown 
in  Table  16. 

1.  General  Building  and  Construction.  Prob- 
ably more  than  40  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber 

167 


168  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  16 

Annual  Wood  Consumption  for  Various  Special  Purposes 

Million 
Purpose  Board  Feet 

1.  General  Building  and  Construction 19,000 

2.  Planing  Mill  Products 15,000 

3.  Boxes  and   Crates    4,600 

4.  Furniture  and  Fixtures    1,400 

5.  Car  Construction 1,260 

6.  Vehicles    740 

7.  Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc 400 

8.  Agricultural  Implements 320 

9.  Handles    280 

10.  Musical  Instruments 260 

11.  Tanks  and  Silos 225 

12.  Ship  and  Boat  Building 200 

13.  Caskets  and  Coffins 150 

14.  Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 140 

15.  Excelsior 100 

16.  Matches  and  Toothpicks   85 

17.  Laundry  Appliances 80 

18.  Shade  and  Map  Rollers 79 

19.  Paving  Materials  and  Conduits 76 

20.  Trunks  and  Valises 75 

21.  Machine  Construction   69 

22.  Boot  and  Shoe  Findings 66 

23.  Picture  Frames  and  Moldings 65 

24.  Shuttles,  Spools,  and  Bobbins 65 

25.  Tobacco  Boxes   63 

26.  Sewing  Machines 60 

27.  Pumps  and  Wood  Pipe 56 

28.  Automobiles    37 

29.  Pulleys  and  Conveyors 36 

30.  Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments 35 

31.  Toys    29 

32.  Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods   25 

33.  Patterns  and  Flasks 24 

34.  Bungs  and  Faucets 21 

85.  Plumbers'  Woodwork    20 

36.  Electrical  Machinery  and  Apparatus 18 

87.  Brushes    13 

88.  Dowels    12 

39.  Elevators    10 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  169 

40.  Saddles  and  Harness 9 

41.  Playground  Equipment   9 

42.  Insulator  Pins  and  Brackets 9 

43.  Butcher  Blocks  and  Skewers   8 

44.  Clocks    8 

45.  Signs  and  Supplies 7 

46.  Printing  Materials   5 

47.  Weighing  Apparatus    5 

48.  Whips,  Canes,  and  Umbrella  Sticks 5 

49.  Brooms  and  Carpet-Sweepers 2 

60.  Firearms   2 

61.  Other  and  Minor  Uses 37 


Total 45,300 


production  of  the  United  States  goes  directly 
from  the  sawmill  into  general  building  and  con- 
struction, without  passage  through  an  interme- 
diate wood-working  factory.  This  includes  all 
ordinary  lumber  used  for  structural  work, 
sheathing,  roofing,  fencing,  etc.  Almost  every 
kind  of  wood  is  used  to  some  extent  for  these 
purposes ;  but  the  chief  building  material  is  the 
softwoods,  because  they  are  more  easily  worked, 
lighter,  and  usually  cheaper  than  the  hardwoods 
in  the  grades  suitable  for  building  purposes. 

2.  Planing  Mill  Products.  Planing  mill  prod- 
ucts (flooring  and  finishing  lumber,  sash,  doors, 
blinds,  etc.)  are  closely  connected  with  the  use 
of  general  building  material,  and  consist  of 
almost  every  kind  of  native  and  foreign  timber. 
The  softwoods — especially  yellow  pine,  Douglas 
fir,  and  white  pine — are  the  principal  woods 
used  for  sashes  and  doors,  while  almost  every 
kind  of  hardwood  is  used  for  flooring  and  inte- 
rior finish. 


170  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Among  the  more  costly  native  and  imported 
woods  which  are  improved  by  mill  work,  are 
mahogany,  black  walnut,  cherry,  Circassian  wal- 
nut, padouk,  prima  vera,  teak,  ebony,  sandal- 
wood,  Spanish  cedar,  rosewood,  koa,  and  holly. 
Some  of  these  are  used  chiefly  for  inlaid  work, 
and  others  for  panels.  Altogether,  the  govern- 
ment reports  indicate  the  use  of  more  than  60 
kinds  of  wood  in  the  planing  mills  and  sash  and 
door  factories  of  the  United  States.  The  States 
in  which  these  factories  are  most  largely  oper- 
ated are  New  York,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, and  Michigan,  although  they  are  found  to 
some  extent  in  every  State  of  the  Union. 

3.  Boxes  and  Crates.  The  manufacture  of 
boxes  and  crates  consumes  10  per  cent  of  the 
annual  lumber  output  of  the  United  States;  and 
while  no  other  industry  can  use  a  larger  variety 
of  woods,  it  is  noteworthy  that  white  pine  and 
yellow  pine  supply  50  per  cent  of  the  box  mate- 
rial. 

Among  the  most  desirable  qualities  in  box- 
making  woods  are  lightness,  strength,  nail-hold- 
ing power,  and  a  surface  upon  which  names  and 
descriptions  can  be  easily  printed.  For  this 
reason  the  softwoods  and  the  softer  hardwoods 
have  always  been  in  demand  for  box  making. 
The  lower  grades  of  lumber  are  mostly  used, 
since  they  are  cheap  and  their  defects  can  be 
cut  out  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Virginia  is  the  leading  box-making  State, 
with  a  consumption  of  more  than  400  million 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  171 

feet  of  lumber  annually  for  this  purpose.  Illi- 
nois, New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  California 
are  rather  close  competitors  in  the  quantity  of 
material  used  for  box  making.  Next  in  order 
come  Michigan,  New  Hampshire,  and  Ohio;  and 
other  States  also  are  large  producers  of  boxes. 
The  percentage  of  the  total  quantity  of  lum- 
ber used  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes  and  crates, 
supplied  by  the  leading  species,  is  indicated  in 
Table  17. 

TABLE  17 
Boxes  and  Crates 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  4,600  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

White  Pine 25 

Yellow  Pine 25 

Red  Gum 9 

Spruce    7 

Western  Pine 6 

Cottonwood 5 

Hemlock    4 

Yellow  Poplar 4 

Maple 2 

Birch    2 

Basswood    2 

Beech 2 

Tupelo   2 

Elm    1 

Oak    I 

Balsam  Fir 1 

Cypress    1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

4.  Furniture  and  Fixtures.  Next  to  box  mak- 
ing, the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  fixtures 
requires  more  lumber  than  any  other  industry, 


172  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

although  less  than  one-third  as  much  as  for 
boxes.  The  percentage  of  the  total  supplied  by 
the  more  important  woods  is  shown  in  Table  18. 

TABLE   18 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  1,400  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak    38 

Maple    11 

Red  Gum 8 

Birch    7 

Yellow  Poplar 5 

Chestnut    4 

Beech 4 

Elm    3 

Basswood    3 

Yellow  Pine    2 

Mahogany    2 

Others 13 

Total    100 

Because  of  its  beautiful  figure,  hardness, 
wearing  qualities,  and  susceptibility  to  finishes 
and  polish,  oak  has  always  been  a  leading  fur- 
niture wood.  The  strength  and  hardness  of 
maple  likewise  place  it  high  as  a  furniture 
wood;  while  the  figure,  color,  and  receptivity  to 
stains  give  red  gum  and  birch  a  large  field  of 
usefulness  in  furniture  making.  Many  beauti- 
ful and  rare  imported  woods  from  all  quarters 
of  the  earth  are  also  used  to  secure  especially 
rich  and  decorative  effects. 

A  large  number  of  woods  are  used  in  furni- 
ture making  which  do  not  appear  in  the  finished 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  173 

article.  These  are  for  backing,  lining,  and 
interior  reinforcement  to  give  strength  and  to 
furnish  the  foundation  for  the  more  expensive 
woods,  which  are  generally  used  as  veneer  in 
order  to  reduce  cost  or  to  get  better  effects  than 
are  possible  with  solid  stock. 

At  present,  North  Carolina  is  the  largest  fur- 
niture and  fixture  producing  State  in  the  Union. 
Next  in  importance  ranks  Illinois,  closely  fol- 
lowed by  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Indiana,  and  Pennsylvania. 

5.  Car  Construction.  Some  forty  kinds  of 
wood  are  used  in  the  construction  of  freight, 
passenger,  parlor,  sleeping,  and  dining  cars ;  but 
over  half  the  total  quantity  is  supplied  by  yel- 
low pine,  and  nearly  one-fourth  by  oak.  Yellow 
pine,  oak,  and  Douglas  fir  are  used  where  great 
strength  is  required  for  sills,  brake-beams, 
posts,  bolsters,  plates,  etc.  Yellow  pine,  Doug- 
las fir,  Norway  pine,  and  cypress  are  used  for 
car  siding,  roofing,  and  similar  purposes ;  yellow 
poplar,  for  panels;  and  ash,  oak,  red  gum, 
mahogany,  birch,  cherry,  walnut,  and  several 
imported  woods,  for  inside  finish. 

There  is  such  a  wide  variety  of  steam  and 
electric  cars  for  both  freight  and  passenger  pur- 
poses that  the  car-building  ships  furnish  one  of 
the  best  markets  for  many  kinds  of  lumber. 
Illinois  is  far  in  the  lead  in  car  construction; 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  are  nearly  equal; 
while  much  car-building  is  done  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Missouri. 


174  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE   10 
Car  Construction 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  1,260  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine    54 

Oak    24 

Douglas  Fir 7 

White  Pine 6 

Yellow   Poplar    3 

Ash    1 

Hemlock    1 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

6.  Vehicles.  The  making  of  vehicles  and 
vehicle  parts  is  an  important  industry  in  many 
of  the  Central  and  Eastern  States.  The  more 
southerly  States  of  the  group,  particularly 
Arkansas,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  furnish  the 
bulk  of  the  raw  material;  while  in  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  and  Michigan,  are  located  many  large 
vehicle  factories. 

Many  woods  find  some  use  in  vehicle  con- 
struction; but  hickory  and  oak  compete  closely 
for  the  lead,  and,  taken  together,  supply  over 
60  per  cent  of  the  raw  material.  Hickory  is 
used  most  largely  for  the  spokes  and  rims  of 
buggy  wheels,  for  gear  parts,  and  for  felloes, 
hubs,  axles,  hounds,  and  bolsters.  Wagon  hubs 
are  made  of  elm  and  birch;  and — in  addition  to 
hickory  and  oak — hard  maple,  white  ash,  beech, 
and  other  hard,  strong  woods  are  used  for  gear 
parts.  Yellow  poplar  has  been  much  used  for 
the  bodies  of  carriages,  delivery  wagons,  and 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  175 

automobiles,  since  it  can  be  obtained  in  large, 
clear  sizes,  works  well,  and  takes  paint  and  pol- 
ishes easily.  Wagon-box  boards  are  largely 
made  from  cottonwood,  red  gum,  basswood,  and 
yellow  poplar.  Bottoms  are  made  of  longleaf 
and  shortleaf  pine,  and  also  of  maple,  gum,  and 
oak.  Ash  is  used  for  frames ;  while  osage  orange 
is  used  for  felloes,  especially  in  the  Southwest, 
where,  under  severe  climatic  conditions,  the 
ordinary  woods  shrink  too  much. 

The  proportion  of  the  total  consumption  of 
wood  for  vehicles,  contributed  by  the  more 
important  species,  is  shown  in  Table  20. 

TABLE  20 

Vehicles 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  740  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Hickory 32 

Oak    29 

Yellow  Poplar 7 

Ash    6 

Maple 5 

Cottonwood 4 

Elm    4 

Yellow  Pine 4 

Red  Gum 4 

Birch    2 

Other  Woods 3 

Total    100 

7.  Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc.  The  manu- 
facture of  woodenware,  novelties,  and  similar 
articles  requires  more  than  400  million  feet  of 
wood  annually,  of  which  ash,  basswood,  and 


176  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TAJBJLJj]  21 

Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc. 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  400  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Ash 15 

Basswood   14 

White  Pine 12 

Maple    9 

Birch   7 

Spruce   7 

Chestnut    5 

Yellow  Pine 5 

Elm    ' 4 

Beech 3 

Cottonwood 3 

Cypress 2 

Red  Gum 2 

Oak 2 

Yellow  Pine 2 

Cedar 2 

Tupelo 1 

Other  Woods 5 

Total    '. 100 

white  pine  supply  nearly  equal  parts,  with  the 
balance  contributed  by  over  fifty  other  species. 
Much  of  the  material  for  woodenware  goes  to 
the  factory  in  log  form,  without  passing  through 
the  sawmill.  Wooden  pie  and  picnic  plates,  but- 
ter trays,  and  dishes  are  largely  made  from  ro- 
tary cut  maple,  beech,  and  birch  veneers.  Many 
more  substantial  kinds  of  woodenware  are 
turned  on  lathes,  among  which  are  dishes,  bowls, 
platters,  and  trays  made  from  basswood,  cotton- 
wood,  and  maple.  Butter  paddles  and  trays  are 
made  of  ash  and  beech;  and  bread-boards,  of 
basswood,  cottonwood,  white  cedar,  silver  ma- 


Creosoted  Cross-Arms  Shortly  after  Removal  from  Treating  Cylinder 


Portable  Plant  of  Cylinder  Type  for  Creosote  Treatment  of 
Railroad  Ties 

Plate  22 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Photo  by  courtesy  of  Boiling  Arthur  Johnson 


Cypress  Shingles  after  Long  Service  on  Washington's  Home  at 
Mount  Vernon 

All  removed  in  1913.  No.  1 — Laid  in  1743,  giving  170  years' 
service;  No.  2 — Laid  in  1785,  85  years;  and  No.  3 — Laid  in  1860, 
53  years. 


Open-Tank  Method  of  Creosote  Treatment 
Here  applied  to  butts  of  chestnut  poles 
Plate  23 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  177 

pie,  and  birch.  Pails,  buckets,  and  small  tubs 
make  up  no  small  proportion  of  the  woodenware 
output,  and  they  often  have  white  pine  staves. 
Hoops  for  these  articles  are  made  from  elm,  ash, 
birch,  and  red  oak.  Peck,  half-peck,  bushel, 
and  half-bushel  measures  are  commonly  made 
with  bodies  of  oak,  birch,  maple,  or  white  pine, 
and  bottoms  of  white  pine,  basswood,  or  ash. 

Novelties  include  wooden  candlesticks,  pin 
trays,  paper  weights,  etc.,  and  are  frequently 
made  of  the  higher-grade  and  more  expensive 
native  and  imported  woods. 

Wisconsin  produces  the  most  woodenware  of 
any  State,  with  Michigan  ranking  second;  while 
New  Hampshire,  Iowa,  Vermont,  and  New  York 
supply  many  articles  of  this  class. 

8.  Agricultural  Implements.  Notwithstanding 
a  greatly  increased  use  of  iron  and  steel  in  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  such 
as  plows,  harrows,  cultivators,  drills,  planters, 
threshing  machines,  rakes,  and  other  articles, 
more  than  300  million  feet  of  lumber  is  annually 
used  in  this  industry.  Yellow  pine  supplies  over 
30  per  cent  of  the  lumber  required  for  agricul- 
tural implements;  oak,  more  than  20  per  cent; 
and  maple,  15  per  cent,  with  relatively  small 
quantities  of  cottonwood,  red  gum,  ash,  hickory, 
white  pine,  basswood,  elm,  beech,  birch,  and 
nearly  twenty  other  species. 

Longleaf  pine  is  used  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments where  strength  but  not  necessarily  tough- 
ness is  required.  Oak  finds  a  large  use  for  plow 


178  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

beams  and  handles;  beech,  hickory,  and  oak,  for 
neck-yokes  and  single  trees;  while  cottonwood, 
yellow  poplar,  red  gum,  white  elm,  beech,  tu- 
pelo,  cypress,  and  Douglas  fir  are  used  for  seed- 
ing and  drill  boxes.  Douglas  fir  and  longleaf 
pine  are  also  used  for  poles  and  tongues  of  agri- 
cultural implements. 

Illinois  is  by  far  the  most  important  State  in 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements, 
while  next  in  order  are  Ohio,  New  York,  and  In- 
diana. 

TABLE  22 

Agricultural  Implements 
(Annual  lumber  consumption,  320  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine 31 

Oak    22 

Maple    li 

Cottonwood 

Red  Gum 

Ash    

Hickory   

White  Pine 

Basswood    

Elm    2 

Beech 2 

Birch   1 

Other  Woods 7 

Total    100 

9.  Handles.  Handle  manufacture  is  nearly  as 
important  as  agricultural  implement  making  in 
regard  to  the  quantity  of  wood  required;  and 
hickory  supplies  more  than  two-fifths  of  all  the 
handle  material.  Next  to  hickory,  ash — espe- 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  179 

cially  white  ash — furnishes  some  23  per  cent  of 
the  handle  wood;  and  maple,  15  per  cent; 
while  beech,  oak,  and  birch  are  important  han- 
dle woods  for  certain  purposes. 

TABLE  23 

Handles 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  280  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Hickory 43 

Ash    23 

Maple    15 

Beech 6 

Oak    4 

Birch    4 

Red  Gum 2 

Elm    1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

Hoe,  rake,  spade,  shovel,  and  fork  handles 
are  chiefly  made  of  ash;  sledge  and  ax  handles, 
of  hickory;  broom  handles,  most  largely  of  ma- 
ple, beech,  and  birch;  cant-hook  handles,  of  hick- 
ory and  hard  maple ;  pump  handles,  of  oak,  ash, 
and  maple;  and  handles  for  wire  stretchers,  of 
white  and  rock  elm. 

Small  handles  for  chisels,  mallets,  planes, 
awls,  saws,  etc.,  are  often  made  from  apple 
wood;  while  the  handles  for  many  small  articles 
in  which  good  appearance  is  desired  are  made 
from  boxwood,  walnut,  mahogany,  rosewood, 
and  ebony. 

Like  the  vehicle  woods,  much  of  the  handle 
material  is  produced  in  the  South,  and  worked 
up  in  the  North.  Arkansas  and  Kentucky  sup- 


180  LUMBER  AND  IT&  USES 

ply  large  amounts  of  hickory  for  handles ;  while 
among  the  States  in  which  handles  are  most 
largely  manufactured  are  Michigan,  Ohio,  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  and  Indiana. 

10.  Musical  Instruments.  The  manufacture 
of  musical  instruments  consumes  a  large  amount 
of  both  native  and  foreign  woods.  Of  the  native 
woods,  nearly  equal  quantities  of  maple,  yel- 
low poplar,  and  chestnut  are  used;  while  spruce, 
oak,  elm,  birch,  basswood,  white  pine,  and  red 
gum  are  largely  drawn  upon. 

The  making  of  cases  for  pianos  and  organs  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  lumber,  maple  being  used 
to  give  strength,  yellow  poplar  and  chest- 
nut as  the  backing  for  veneer,  spruce  for  sound- 
ing boards,  the  finer  hardwoods  and  imported 
woods  for  the  keys,  red  gum  and  maple  for  ac- 
tion parts,  birch  for  key  rails  and  hammers,  and 
beech  and  elm  for  backs.  Many  woods  are  used 
to  give  a  varied  and  beautiful  effect  in  the 
smaller  musical  instruments.  Spanish  cedar  is 
used  for  the  necks  of  banjos,  guitars,  and  man- 
dolins; boxwood,  for  inlay  work;  mahogany, 
bird's-eye  maple,  rosewood,  yellow  poplar,  birch, 
walnut,  and  oak,  for  drums;  bird's-eye  and  curly 
maple,  and  rosewood,  for  harp  boxes,  etc. 

Illinois  uses  more  wood  than  any  other  State 
for  the  manufacture  of  musical  instruments,  and 
New  York  ranks  second;  while  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey,  and  Michigan  are  large  consumers 
of  material  for  this  purpose. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  181 

TABLE  24 

Musical  Instruments 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  260  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Maple   17 

Yellow  Poplar 16 

Chestnut    15 

Spruce   ,  11 

Oak    8 

Elm    6 

Birch   5 

Basswood    4 

White  Pine 3 

Red  Gum 3 

Mahogany    3 

Black  Walnut 2 

Beech 2 

Ash    1 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

11.  Tanks  and  Silos.  Wooden  tanks  and  silos 
require  straight-grained,  easily-worked,  dura- 
ble material  which  can  be  obtained  in  good  sizes 
and  which  will  not  impart  any  objectionable 
taste  to  the  contents.  The  woods  most  largely 
used  for  these  purposes  are  Douglas  fir,  yellow 
pine,  cypress,  white  pine,  spruce,  redwood,  and 
larch  or  tamarack.  Douglas  fir  and  yellow  pine 
are  used  to  a  very  large  extent  for  silos,  because 
of  their  abundance;  while,  to  a  lesser  extent, 
silos  are  made  from  cypress,  tamarack,  redwood, 
and  hemlock.  Tanks  and  vats  for  holding  oil, 
water,  and  distillery  and  brewery  products  are 
largely  made  from  cypress  and  redwood,  Oak 
is  also  used  for  distillery  tanks. 


182  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

In  the  manufacture  of  tanks  and  silos,  Indi- 
ana has  the  leading  place,  followed  closely  by 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Michigan,  and  California.  How- 
ever, silos  are  not  necessarily  factory  products, 
since  material  for  them  is  often  produced  at  saw- 
mills and  sold  through  lumber  dealers  in  the 
localities  where  silos  are  erected.  For  this  rea- 
son, the  figures  given  in  Table  25  are  less  than 
the  total  lumber  consumption  for  tanks  and  silos. 

TABLE  25 

Tanks  and  Silos 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  225  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Douglas  Fir 40 

Yellow  Pine   18 

Cypress    16 

White  Pine 8 

Spruce   5 

Larch    4 

Redwood   4 

Oak    2 

Cedar 2 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

12.  Ship  and  Boat  Building.  The  ship  and 
boat  industry  in  the  United  States  annually  con- 
sumes some  200  million  feet  of  lumber,  of  which 
yellow  pine  supplies  one-third,  Douglas  fir  about 
one-fifth,  and  oak  about  one-sixth.  Important 
woods  in  this  industry  are  also  white  pine,  ash, 
spruce,  cedar,  and  cypress;  while  nearly  forty 
other  woods  are  used  to  a  less  extent,  including 
such  imported  specdes  as  mahogany,  teak,  prima 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  183 

vera,  Spanish  cedar,  Circassian  walnut,  balsam, 
lignum  vitae,  padouk,  and  rosewood. 

TABLE  26 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  200  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used                                                  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine   33 

Douglas  Fir 22 

Oak    . .  ." 16 

White  Pine 7 

Ash    4 

Spruce   4 

Cedar 4 

Cypress    3 

Hemlock    2 

Other  Woods 5 

Total   100 

Yellow  pine  and  Douglas  fir  are  the  most 
important  shipbuilding  woods  because  of  their 
strength  and  their  availability  in  large  struc- 
tural sizes.  Both  longleaf  pine  and  Douglas  fir 
are  used  for  spars,  decking,  keels,  keel-blocks, 
rails,  guards,  and  the  like.  Cypress,  white  pine, 
oak,  yellow  pine,  and  Douglas  fir  are  also  used 
for  inside  finish,  as  well  as  for  ceiling  and  deck- 
ing; while  numerous  hardwoods  and  imported 
woods  are  used  for  inside  finish.  Teak  is  used 
for  armor  backing;  and  balsa,  or  corkwood,  for 
life  preservers. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  Douglas  fir,  Port  Or- 
ford  cedar,  redwood,  and  Sitka  spruce  find  a 
large  use  in  ship  and  boat  building;  while  in 
Maine  and  some  of  the  Eastern  States,  the  man- 
ufacture of  high-grade  pleasure  canoes  has  as- 


184  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

sinned  large  proportions,  these  canoes  being 
often  made  with  white  cedar  ribs,  planking  of 
Western  red  cedar,  gunwales  of  spruce  or  ma- 
hogany, thwarts  of  birch  or  maple,  and  seats  of 
birch,  maple,  or  ash. 

New  York  is  the  largest  ship  and  boat  building 
State,  due  to  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard.  Penn- 
sylvania takes  second  rank  because  of  its  large 
shipbuilding  plants;  while  California,  Oregon, 
New  Jersey,  and  Maine  are  also  large  producers 
of  ships  and  boats. 

13.  Caskets  and  Coffins.  About  150  million 
feet  of  lumber  are  used  annually  in  the  manu- 
facture of  caskets  and  coffins,  of  which  chestnut 
supplies  30  per  cent,  white  pine  32  per  cent,  and 
cypress  13  per  cent,  the  balance  being  made  up 
by  nearly  thirty  other  woods. 

Chestnut  and  white  pine  are  most  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  cloth-covered  caskets 
and  coffins.  Chestnut  is  also  much  used  as  the 
backing  for  a  veneer  of  more  expensive  woods 
of  ornamental  appearance.  The  exterior  often 
consists  of  mahogany,  yellow  poplar,  white  oak, 
red  oak,  or  birch.  Cypress,  cedar,  and  redwood 
are  used  because  of  their  resistance  to  decay; 
while  white  pine,  shortleaf  pine,  and  yellow  pop- 
lar are  common  woods  for  outer  boxes  and  ship- 
ping cases. 

In  the  manufacture  of  caskets  and  coffins, 
New  York  ranks  first,  followed  by  Pennsylva- 
nia, Tennessee,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  185 

TABLE  27 

Caskets  and  Coffins 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  150  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Chestnut    30 

White  Pine 22 

Cypress    13 

Yellow  Pine    8 

Yellow  Poplar 6 

Oak    5 

Red  Gum 5 

Cedar    4 

Basswood   2 

Hemlock    1 

Other  Woods    4 

Total    100 

14.    Refrigerators    and    Kitchen    Cabinets. 

Nearly  20  species  of  wood  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  refrigerators  and  kitchen  cabinets; 
but  oak  supplies  23  per  cent  of  the  total,  ash  14 
per  cent,  and  red  gum  10  per  cent.  Other  woods 
used  to  a  considerable  degree  for  this  purpose 
are  cln^  white  and  yellow  pine,  hemlock,  ma- 
ple, yellow  poplar,  spruce,  basswood,  cotton- 
wood,  and  birch. 

Woods  for  refrigerators  and  kitchen  cabinets 
must  meet  a  wide  variety  of  requirements.  The 
outside  finish  must  look  well,  and  here  the  usual 
cabinet  woods  are  employed.  Strong,  stiff  ma- 
terial for  frames  is  supplied  by  hemlock  and 
shortleaf  pine;  elm  and  beech  stand  up  well 
under  dampness,  and  scour  well  when  washed. 
It  is  also  essential  that,  in  certain  places,  woods 
shall  be  used  which  impart  no  odors  to  food; 


186  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

for  these  purposes,  elm,  maple,  basswood,  cot- 
tonwood,  and  cypress  are  satisfactory.  Ice- 
boxes are  often  made  of  spruce,  refrigerator 
backs  of  white  pine,  and  ice  cream  freezers  of 
redwood. 

In  the  manufacture  of  refrigerators  and 
kitchen  cabinets,  Michigan  ranks  first,  and  In- 
diana second,  followed  by  New  York,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Indiana. 

TABLE  28 
Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  140  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak    23 

Ash    14 

Red  Gum 10 

Elm    9 

White  Pine 6 

Yellow  Pine    6 

Hemlock    5 

Maple   6 

Yellow  Poplar 4 

Spruce   4 

Basswood   4 

Cottonwood    3 

Birch    3 

Cypress    1 

Chestnut    1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

15.  Excelsior.  Excelsior  finds  a  large  use  for 
packing,  mattresses,  and  upholstering.  It  is 
made  in  a  number  of  grades  based  on  quality 
and  fineness ;  and  the  best  requires  a  wood  which, 
in  addition  to  working  easily,  gives  a  tough, 
flexible  product.  The  finest  grade — called 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  187 

"wood  wool" — has  a  strand  less  than  1/100  of 
an  inch  in  thickness. 

The  true  poplars,  including  the  various  aspens 
and  cottonwoods,  supply  more  than  half  of  the 
excelsior  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
Basswood  and  yellow  poplar  give  a  product  of 
similar  character,  while  coarser  grades  are  made 
from  yellow  pine  and  several  other  woods. 
Among  the  States  in  which  excelsior  is  most 
largely  produced,  are  New  York,  Virginia,  Wis- 
consin, and  New  Hampshire. 

TABLE  29 

Excelsior 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  100  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Cottonwood    54 

Yellow  Pine 15 

Basswood    14 

Willow    4 

Red  Gum   3 

Maple    3 

White  Pine 2 

Yellow  Poplar 2 

Buckeye   1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total   100 

16.  Matches  and  Toothpicks.  Although  put 
into  one  table  in  the  statistical  reports,  matches 
and  toothpicks  are  by  no  means  made  from  the 
same  woods.  White  pine  has  long  been  a  stand- 
ard match  material,  and  basswood  is  used  to 
some  extent  for  this  purpose  in  the  Eastern  fac- 
tories. On  the  Pacific  Coast,  sugar  pine  and 


188  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Port  Orford  cedar  are  used  for  match  sticks; 
while  in  Virginia  yellow  poplar  and  soft  maple 
are  also  used.  Spruce  is  employed  for  the  mak- 
ing of  match  cases. 

Toothpicks  are  made  almost  exclusively  from 
birch  and  maple  and  are  chiefly  produced  in 
Michigan  and  New  England. 

TABLE  30 

Matches  and  Toothpicks 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  85  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

White  Pine 86 

Basswood    

Birch   

Maple    

Spruce   

Other  Woods 

Total   100 

17.  Laundry  Appliances.  Laundry  appliances 
include  washing  machines,  washboards,  ironing 
boards,  clothes  wringers,  mangles,  tubs,  clothes- 
pins, and  similar  articles.  Cypress  and  maple 
compete  closely  for  the  lead  in  the  manufacture 
of  laundry  appliances,  while  nearly  equal  quan- 
tities of  beech  and  cottonwood  are  required. 
More  than  twenty  other  woods  contribute  to  the 
total  of  some  80  million  feet  of  lumber  annually 
consumed  in  this  industry. 

Cottonwood,  basswood,  and  Sitka  spruce  are 
much  used  for  washboards.  Frames  of  ironing 
boards  are  often  made  of  maple;  and  the  tops, 
of  cypress,  cottonwood,  spruce,  basswood,  and 


THE  USES  OF  LUMfeEft  18$ 

witite  pine.  Wooden  mangles  are  usually  made 
of  elm,  beech,  or  maple;  and  wooden  tubs  fre- 
quently have  cypress  staves.  Laundry  machine' 
construction  uses  cypress,  maple,  basswood,  yel- 
low poplar,  and  red  and  white  oak.  Clothes-ping 
are  most  largely  made  of  basswood,  beech,  and 
maple,  and  also  to  some  extent  of  birch,  elm, 
and  ash. 

In  manufacture  of  laundry  appliances,  Mich- 
igan has  a  large  lead,  with  Indiana,  Iowa,  New 
York,  and  Ohio  ranking  next  in  importance. 

TABLE  31 

Laundry  Appliances 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  80  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Cypress    19 

Maple    18 

Beech    12 

Cottonwood    10 

Basswood    

Cedar  

Birch    

Tupelo    

Red  Gum 

White  Pine 

Spruce   

Yellow  Pine 2 

Elm    2 

Hemlock    2 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

18.  Shade  and  Map  Rollers.  Nearly  four- 
fifths  of  all  the  shade  and  map  rollers  are  made 
from  white  pine;  and  one-seventh,  from  spruce 


190  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

and  other  softwoods.  Such  hardwoods  as  are 
credited  to  this  industry  are  used  chiefly  for 
curtain  poles  and  trim. 

TABLE  32 

Shade  and  Map  Rollers 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  79  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

White  Pine 78 

Spruce    9 

Douglas   Fir    4 

Red  Gum 3 

Yellow  Pine    1 

Tupelo 1 

Maple    1 

Other  Woods 3 

Total    100 

19.  Paving  Materials  and  Conduits.  The  man- 
ufacture of  paving  materials  and  conduits  of 
wood  which  is  given  a  chemical  treatment  to 
prevent  decay,  is  one  of  the  more  recently  de- 
veloped industries;  but  it  has  already  reached 
a  considerable  size,  requiring  about  76  million 
feet  of  lumber  annually.  As  is  brought  out  in 
the  discussion  of  wood  block  pavements,  yellow 
pine  is  by  far  the  most  largely  used  wood  for  this 
purpose;  but  larch  or  tamarack,  Douglas  fir, 
Norway  pine,  and  tupelo  are  also  used,  the  lat- 
ter more  especially  for  conduits  to  carry  under- 
ground telegraph  or  telephone  lines.  These  ma- 
terials are  prepared  wherever  creosoting  plants 
may  be  located,  of  which  there  are  now  nearly 
100  in  the  United  States,  as  shown  by  the  map 
in  Plate  21. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  1»1 

TABLE   S3 

Paving  Materials  and  Conduits 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  76  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine    86 

Larch    6 

Douglas  Fir 5 

Tupelo 1 

Other  Woods    2 

Total    100 

20.  Trunks  and  Valises.  The  manufacture  of 
trunks  and  valises  annually  consumes  about  75 
million  feet  of  twenty-four  different  woods,  of 
which  basswood  supplies  28  per  cent,  yellow 
pine  20  per  cent,  and  white  pine  10  per  cent. 

Trunks  and  valises  are  usually  made  from 
softwoods  which  offer  a  desirable  combination 
of  light  weight  and  strength,  or  from  veneer  of 
hardwoods,  in  which  strength  can  be  secured 
without  much  weight.  Trunk  slats  are  gener- 
ally of  maple,  beech,  or  elm;  and  here  strength 
is  an  important  property.  Trunk  trays  are 
largely  made  from  basswood  and  yellow  pine; 
while  the  box  of  the  trunk  is  either  of  thin  lum- 
ber with  some  kind  of  outside  covering,  or,  in 
the  better  grades,  of  built-up  veneer,  which 
gives  much  strength  and  resistance  to  hard 
knocks. 

Trunks  and  valises  are  largely  made  in  Vir- 
ginia, Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Ohio. 


192  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  34 

Trunks  and  Valises 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  75  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Basswood    28 

Yellow  Pine    20 

White  Pine 10 

Hemlock 9 

Elm    9 

Maple    7 

Yellow  Poplar 4 

Cottonwood    3 

Red  Gum 2 

Spruce   2 

Cypress    2 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

21.  Machine  Construction.    Under  this  head- 
ing are  grouped  such  machines  as  steam  shov- 
els, cranes,  hoists,  well  drills,  dredges,  crushers, 
presses,  etc.,  in  which  much  of  the  wood  used 
must  possess  strength,  toughness,  and  durabil- 
ity.   Yellow  pine  supplies  one-third  of  the  wood 
required  for  machine  construction;  cypress,  23 
per  cent;  and  oak,  12  per  cent;  while  nearly 
thirty  other  woods  are  used  in  smaller  amounts. 

The  manufacture  of  machinery  of  this  charac- 
ter is  scattered  over  a  number  of  States,  and 
not  so  centralized  as  are  many  other  industries. 
Among  the  States  in  which  machine  construc- 
tion attains  considerable  magnitude,  however, 
are  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  Illinois. 

22.  Boot  and  Shoe  Findings.    By  boot  and 
shoe  findings  are  chiefly  meant  lasts,  last  blocks, 
shoe  forms,  shoe  trees,  shoe  pegs,  and  wooden 


Courtesy  of  C.  J.  Humphrey 

Wood-Destroying  Fungi  Growing  on  an  Oak  Railroad  Tie 


I 


Simple  Method  of  Treating  Butts  of  Fence-Posts  with  Creosote 
Plate   25 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  193 

TABLE  35 

Machine  Construction 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  69  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine    33 

Cypress    23 

Oak    12 

White  Pine 8 

Maple 5 

Hemlock    5 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Ash    2 

Basswood    2 

Hickory   2 

Douglas  Fir  .  .  v 1 

Elm 1 

Spruce   1 

Beech    1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

heels.  The  material  for  these  articles  goes  to 
the  factory  in  log  or  bolt  form;  and  the  amount 
annually  required  is  equivalent  to  about  66  mil- 
lion board  feet  of  lumber.  That  the  manufac- 
ture of  these  small  articles  is  after  all  no  mean 
industry,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  amount 
of  wood  used  for  boot  and  shoe  findings  in  the 
State  of  Maine  is  greater  than  that  used  by  the 
shipyards  and  boat  and  canoe  builders  of  that 
State. 

Shoe  lasts  are  made  very  largely  from  maple; 
while  basswood  is  used  for  forms  or  fillers. 
A  small  amount  of  birch  is  also  used  for  lasts, 
and  shoe  pegs  and  shanks  are  made  of  it.  Wooden 
heels  are  made  of  maple. 


194  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

The  manufacture  of  lasts  is  one  of  the  most 
painstaking  operations  in  the  wood-using  in- 
dustries. The  last  blocks  are  air  dried  for  a  long 
time,  and  then  very  slowly  dried  by  artificial 
heat  for  as  much  as  two  years  before  they  are 
turned  to  the  finished  pattern.  Maple  is  pre- 
ferred for  lasts,  because  it  is  hard,  smooth,  and 
tough,  takes  a  high  polish,  does  not  warp  or 
shrink,  and  stands  up  well  under  the  severe  wear 
to  which  lasts  are  subjected. 

Among  the  more  important  States  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  boot  and  shoe  findings,  are  New 
York,  Michigan,  Massachusetts,  and  Maine. 

TABLE  36 

Boot  and  Shoe  Findings 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  66  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Maple    82 

Birch    11 

Basswood    5 

Beech    1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

23.  Picture  Frames  and  Moldings.  Although 
small  articles  in  themselves,  the  manufacture  of 
picture  frames  and  moldings  in  the  United 
States  annually  consumes  about  65  million  feet 
of  lumber  of  more  than  thirty  species.  Of  this 
total,  basswood,  oak,  and  red  gum  supply  two- 
thirds;  and  of  the  remainder,  white  and  yellow 
pine,  birch,  yellow  poplar,  chestnut,  and  beech 
are  the  more  important  woods. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  195 

Oak  is  largely  used  for  picture  frames  because 
of  its  ornamental  value;  white  pine,  basswood, 
and  yellow  poplar,  because  they  are  light,  easily 
worked,  and  take  finishes  and  enamel  well;  while 
such  woods  as  birch,  red  gum,  mahogany,  wal- 
nut, rosewood,  etc.,  are  used  for  hand  mirrors, 
where  both  facing  and  backing  must  present 
an  ornamental  appearance. 

Illinois  uses  by  far  the  largest  quantity  of 
wood  of  any  State  in  the  manufacture  of  pic- 
ture frames  and  moldings;  while  other  impor- 
tant States  in  the  production  of  these  articles 
are  New  York,  Michigan,  Indiana,  and  Ohio. 

TABLE  37 

Picture  Frames  and  Moldings 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  65  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Basswood    31 

Oak    25 

Red  Gum 12 

White  Pine 9 

Yellow  Pine    8 

Birch    5 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Chestnut    2 

Beech I.      2 

Other  Woods   3 

Total    100 

24.  Shuttles,  Spools,  and  Bobbins.  The  man- 
ufacture of  shuttles,  spools,  and  bobbins  requires 
practically  as  much  wood  as  do  picture  frames 
and  moldings.  It  constitutes  an  important  in- 
dustry in  many  States,  and  especially  in  Maine. 


196  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  88 

Shuttles,  Spools,  and  Bobbins 
(Annual  wood  consumption,  65  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Birch   51 

Maple    21 

Dogwood    11 

Beech 5 

Persimmon 4 

Basswood    3 

Hickory 1 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Other  Woods 3 

Total    100 

Spools  are  made  chiefly  from  paper  birch;  and, 
in  addition  to  the  quantity  used  at  home,  several 
million  feet  of  spool  stock  are  annually  exported 
from  Maine  to  Scotland.  Only  birch  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  small,  one-piece  spools. 
Three-piece  spools  are  also  made  of  yellow  pop- 
lar and  red  gum.  Bobbins  are  made  from  maple, 
birch,  and  beech;  while  shuttles — which,  for  fac- 
tory purposes,  must  be  exceedingly  resistant  to 
wear,  are  made  almost  entirely  from  dogwood 
and  persimmon.  These  woods  are  very  dense, 
hard,  and  strong,  and  become  extremely  smooth 
with  wear. 

Maine  uses  nearly  one-third  of  all  the  material 
consumed  in  the  United  States  for  shuttles, 
spools,  and  bobbins ;  New  Hampshire,  about  one- 
eighth;  while  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  and  New 
York  produce  the  articles  in  lesser  quantities. 
Tennessee  is  perhaps  the  most  important  State 
in  supplying  the  dogwood  and  persimmon  used 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  197 

in  the  Northern  factories  for  the  manufacture 
of  shuttles. 

25.  Tobacco  Boxes.  The  standard  material 
for  cigar  boxes  is  Spanish  cedar.  The  highest- 
grade  boxes  are  made  entirely  of  this  wood, 
while  the  cheaper  boxes  often  have  a  veneer  of 
Spanish  cedar  laid  over  a  backing  of  tupelo,  yel- 
low poplar,  red  gum,  or  some  cheaper  wood. 
These  latter  woods  are  sometimes  stained  to 
imitate  Spanish  cedar  without  the  application 
of  the  more  costly  veneer.  In  addition  to  the 
woods  shown  in  Table  39,  smaller  quantities  of 
oak,  cedar,  sycamore,  white  pine,  mahogany, 
magnolia,  redwood,  African  cedar,  maple,  cot- 
tonwood,  Circassian  walnut,  and  rosewood  are 
also  used. 

Containers  for  plug,  smoking,  and  chewing 
tobacco  are  largely  made  from  sycamore  and 
red  gum,  usually  in  the  form  of  three-ply 
veneer. 

TABLE  30 

Tobacco  Boxes 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  63  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Spanish  Cedar 47 

Tupelo    16 

Yellow  Poplar 12 

Red  Gum 11 

Basswood    7 

Elm 3 

Cypress 2 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

Among  the  more  prominent  States  in  the 


198  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

manufacture  of  cigar  and  tobacco  boxes,  are 
Missouri,  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Alabama. 

26.  Sewing  Machines.    The  manufacture  of 
sewing  machines  annually  requires  about   60 
million  feet  of  lumber,  of  which  oak  and  red 
gum  each  supply  nearly  one-third,  and  yellow 
poplar  and  black  walnut  each  a  little  more  than 
one-eighth,  the  balance  being  made  up  of  tupelo, 
chestnut,  cottonwood,  maple,  basswood,  birch, 
sycamore,  mahogany,  yellow  pine,  and  redwood. 

Tops  of  sewing  machines  are  usually  made 
of  hardwood  veneer  such  as  oak  or  walnut,  or 
of  other  woods  stained  to  imitate  mahogany. 
In  addition  to  its  use  for  veneered  tops,  red  gum 
is  used  in  sewing  machine  parts  and  for  veneer 
backing,  as  is  also  tupelo.  The  sewing  machine 
industry  is  rather  local,  and  centered  most 
largely  in  Indiana  and  Illinois. 

TABLE  40 

Sewing  Machines 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  60  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak    32 

/         Red  Gum 32 

Yellow  Poplar 13 

Black  Walnut 13 

Tupelo 7 

Chestnut    1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

27.  Pumps  and  Wood  Pipe.     While  many 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  199 

more  pumps  and  parts  of  pumps  are  made  of 
other  materials  than  was  once  the  case,  the 
pump-making  industry  consumes  a  considerable 
quantity  of  wood  in  the  form  of  piping,  tubing, 
rods,  handles,  platforms,  buckets,  cylinders,  etc. 

TABJLE  41 

Pumps  and  Wood  Pipe 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  56  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Douglas  Fir 38 

White  Pine 22 

Redwood 16 

Red  Gum 6 

Cypress    4 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Maple    ' 3 

Ash 2 

Hickory   2 

Oak    1 

Tupelo 1 

Larch 1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

White  pine  is  largely  used  for  piping, 
tubing,  siding,  curbing,  and  covering.  Well 
buckets  are  made  of  maple,  ash,  beech,  and  oak; 
pump  handles  and  rods,  of  oak,  ash,  and  beech; 
water  pipes,  of  yellow  poplar,  maple,  and  white 
pine ;  and  platforms,  of  cypress.  Shortleaf  pine 
and  cypress  are  used  for  boxes  for  chain  and 
bucket  pumps;  tupelo,  for  pump  stocks;  and 
short  and  longleaf  pine,  for  pump  poles.  In  the 
West,  Douglas  fir  and  redwood  are  largely  used 
for  pumps,  and  more  especially  for  wood  pipe, 


200  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

where  some  exceptionally  large  pipes  of  this 
character  carry  city  water  supplies. 

28.  Automobiles.  Statistics  of  the  consump- 
tion of  wood  in  automobile  manufacture  are  by 
no  means  complete,  since,  in  many  cases,  the  re- 
ports do  not  distinguish  between  the  manufac- 
ture of  automobiles  and  that  of  other  vehicles. 
Such  figures  as  are  available,  however,  indicate 
the  percentage  of  various  woods  used  as  shown 
in  Table  42. 

Automobile  manufacturers  generally  demand 
high  grades  of  lumber.  Ash,  oak,  longleaf  pine, 
and  birch  are  employed  for  frames;  hickory,  for 
wheels;  elm,  for  the  interior  of  bodies;  yellow 
poplar,  black  and  Circassian  walnut,  birch,  and 
red  gum,  for  the  finish  of  tops  and  bodies.  The 
wood  finisher  employs  his  highest  art  in  giving 
a  fine  appearance  to  automobiles,  and  he  must 
have  good  materials  with  which  to  work. 

TABLE  42 

Automobiles 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  37  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Ash   22 

Hickory    19 

Yellow  Poplar 19 

Birch    11 

Maple    11 

Elm    8 

Oak    2 

Other  Woods 8 

Total    .  ..100 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  201 

29.  Pulleys  and  Conveyors.   The  manufacture 
of  pulleys  and  conveyors  requires  about  36  mil- 
lion feet  of  wood  annually,  of  which  red  gum 
supplies  more  than  one-half,  and  oak  one-fifth, 
the  balance  being  made  up  of  some  twenty  spe- 
cies, of  which  maple,  birch,  beech,  tupelo,  and 
basswood  are  the  most  important. 

Pulleys  and  conveyors  are  manufactured  in 
many  different  places;  but  such  statistics  as  are 
available  indicate  that  by  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  the  output  comes  from  Kentucky, 
with  a  decidedly  smaller  amount  from  Indiana 
and  Michigan. 

TABLE  43 

Pulleys  and  Conveyors 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  36  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Red  Gum 55 

Oak    20 

Maple    7 

Birch    6 

Beech. 2 

Tupelo 2 

Basswood    2 

Ash   1 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

30.  Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments. 
The  manufacture  of  professional  and  scientific 
instruments  of  a  wide  variety  requires  more  than 
thirty  domestic  and  foreign  woods  amounting  to 
an  annual  total  of  about  35  million  feet.   Pencils 


202  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  44 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  35  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Cedar 57 

Maple    14 

Basswood    7 

Beech    4 

Birch    3 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Hickory    3 

Cherry    2 

Boxwood    2 

White  Pine 2 

Other  Woods 3 

Total    100 

are  included,  however,  in  this  classification;  and 
for  them  Southern  red  cedar  is  chiefly  used,  be- 
cause of  its  softness,  straight,  even  grain,  and 
good  whittling  qualities.  Maple  is  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  rulers,  yard  sticks,  cam- 
era boxes,  and  other  articles.  Basswood  finds  a 
large  use  in  the  making  of  yard  sticks,  drafting 
tables,  alphabet  blocks,  and  advertising  novel- 
ties. Penholders  are  chiefly  made  from  red 
gum;  level  blocks,  from  cherry;  thermometers, 
from  oak;  planes,  from  beech;  surveyors'  stakes, 
from  oak,  longleaf  pine,  chestnut,  and  hickory; 
drafting  tables  and  equipment,  from  ash,  bass- 
wood,  beech,  mahogany,  birch,  and  white  pine; 
and  camera  boxes  and  parts,  from  basswood, 
beech,  butternut,  cypress,  hickory,  mahogany, 
spruce,  maple,  oak,  and  yellow  poplar. 
The  State  of  New  York  is  by  far  the  largest 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  203 

producer  of  professional  and  scientific  instru- 
ments. New  Jersey  comes  next;  and  Michigan, 
third. 

31.  Toys.  Basswood  and  maple  supply  more 
than  two-fifths  of  the  wood  used  in  toy  making, 
basswood  being  often  used  for  the  bottoms  of 
children's  wagons  and  carts,  while  the  seats  and 
rims  are  made  from  maple.  Axles,  spokes,  and 
rims  are  made  from  oak;  spokes  and  frames, 
from  ash;  and  sled  tops,  from  chestnut.  Domi- 
noes and  checkers  are  made  from  both  maple 
and  basswood,  while  toy  blocks  are  made  chiefly 
from  basswood  and  some  yellow  poplar.  Toy 
wagons  and  sleds  are  also  made  from  birch;  doll 
furniture,  from  white  pine,  birch,  maple,  and 
beech;  doll  houses,  from  birch  and  basswood; 
while  many  turned  toys  are  made  from  birch. 

TABLE  45 

Toys 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  29  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used                                                  Per  Cent 

Basswood    30 

Maple    14 

Beech    11 

Birch    11 

White  Pine 8 

Elm    7 

Oak 5 

Chestnut 3 

Ash 3 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Red  Gum 2 

Cottonwood    1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    .  ..100 


204  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

In  the  manufacture  of  toys,  Pennsylvania  is 
the  leading  State,  followed  very  closely  by  Wis- 
consin, Maine,  and  New  York. 

32.  Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods.  More  than 
30  different  woods  contribute  to  the  total  of  25 
million  feet  of  timber  annually  required  in  the 
manufacture  of  sporting  and  athletic  goods.  Of 
this  quantity,  hickory  and  maple  supply  40  per 
cent;  elm  and  ash,  each  13  per  cent;  and  oak,  10 
per  cent. 

These  goods  comprise  a  long  list  of  articles, 
including  baseball  bats,  bowling  balls,  dumb- 
bells, fishing  rods,  golf  clubs,  Indian  clubs,  skis, 
snowshoes,  tenpins,  tennis  rackets  and  many 
others.  Among  other  purposes,  hickory,  maple, 
beech,  and  ash  are  used  for  baseball  bats;  elm, 
for  gymnasium  goods;  and  maple,  for  tenpins. 
A  great  deal  of  oak  is  used  for  billiard  and  pool 
tables,  and  rosewood  for  the  exterior  finish.  Ma- 
ple is  used  for  billiard  cues,  with  black  walnut, 
ebony,  Circassian  walnut,  and  rosewood  for  the 
decorative  parts.  Yellow  pine  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  bowling  alleys ;  and  also  a  great 
deal  of  maple.  Lignum  vitae  is  the  preferred 
wood  for  bowling  balls.  Golf  clubs  are  usually 
made  with  hickory  handles  and  persimmon 
heads.  Climbing  poles  may  be  made  of  yellow 
pine ;  and  vaulting  poles,  of  spruce.  Altogether, 
the  demands  upon  the  woods  used  for  sporting 
and  athletic  goods  are  many  and  varied,  but  the 
qualities  of  strength  and  toughness  are  the  ones 
most  largely  required. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  205 

In  the  manufacture  of  these  goods,  Michigan 
holds  first  place,  with  New  York,  Tennessee,  and 
Illinois  following  in  close  order. 

TABLE  46 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  25  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Hickory   20 

Maple 20 

Elm    13 

Ash 13 

Oak    10 

Birch   4 

Yellow  Poplar 4 

Yellow  Pine    4 

White  Pine 3 

Basswood    1 

Other  Woods 8 

Total    100 

33.  Patterns  and  Flasks.  The  reports  group 
the  woods  used  for  patterns  and  flasks,  although 
they  really  have  no  property  in  common,  and 
very  different  grades  of  material  are  required 
for  the  two  purposes.  For  pattern  making,  soft, 
even-grained,  easily  worked  woods  which  swell 
and  shrink  very  little  are  required;  while,  for 
the  foundry  flasks  which  hold  the  sand  and  pat- 
terns, almost  any  wood  will  do. 

By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  patterns  are 
made  from  white  pine,  although,  for  specially 
fine  castings — in  which  it  is  important  to  have 
durable  patterns  that  can  be  used  many  times 
without  wear  or  swelling  and  shrinking—expen- 
sive woods  like  mahogany  and  cherry  are  used. 


206  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Because  of  its  resistance  to  wear,  white  oak  is 
also  employed  to  -some  extent  for  patterns. 
Flasks  are  made  from  yellow  pine,  white  pine, 
hemlock,  redwood,  and  a  number  of  other  woods. 
In  the  manufacture  of  patterns  and  flasks, 
Pennsylvania  seems  to  have  a  decided  lead; 
while  New  Jersey  and  Ohio  use  more  wood  for 
these  purposes  than  any  other  State  except 
Pennsylvania. 

TABLE  47 

Patterns  and  Flasks 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  24  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

White  Pine 75 

Yellow  Pine 8 

Redwood    4 

Hemlock    2 

Spruce   2 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Sugar  Pine 1 

Mahogany    1 

Cedar 1 

Other  Woods 5 

Total    100 

34.  Bungs  and  Faucets.  The  manufacture  of 
such  apparently  insignificant  articles  as  bungs 
and  faucets  annually  requires  more  than  20  mil- 
lion board  feet  of  wood,  of  which  yellow  poplar 
supplies  85  per  cent.  This  wood  is  preferred  be- 
cause it  is  straight-grained,  soft,  and  easily 
worked,  and  because  it  contracts  and  expands 
evenly.  The  even  expansion  of  the  bung  is  what 
causes  it  to  fit  tightly  and  prevent  leakage. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  207 

By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  bungs  man- 
ufactured are  produced  in  the  State  of  Ohio, 
and  especially  in  Cincinnati,  although  the  yel- 
low poplar  from  which  they  are  made  comes 
mainly  from  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  West 
Virginia. 

TABLE  48 

Bungs  and  Faucets 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  21  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Poplar 85 

Maple 4 

Beech 4 

Red  Gum 2 

Birch   1 

White  Pine 1 

Oak    1 

Other  woods 2 

Total    100 

35.  Plumbers'  Woodwork.  For  plumbers' 
woodwork,  about  the  same  quantity  of  wood  is 
required  as  for  bungs  and  faucets.  Under  this 
heading  is  included  the  wood  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  bathtubs,  toilet  tanks,  seats,  bath- 
room cabinets,  and  other  plumbers'  equipment. 
Oak  is  the  chief  wood  for  these  purposes,  with 
birch  second,  and  much  smaller  quantities  of 
a  dozen  other  woods  consumed.  For  exterior 
work  where  a  fine  appearance  is  desired,  oak  is 
most  largely  used,  together  with  birch,  cherry, 
and  mahogany.  Maple  and  yellow  poplar  are 
employed  for  painted  or  enameled  work;  and 
yellow  poplar,  chestnut,  red  gum,  and  shortleaf 


208  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

pine,  for  tank  backing.  Ash  is  often  used  for 
wash-tray  frames. 

TABLE  49 
Plumbers'  Woodwork 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  20  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak    70 

Birch   12 

Yellow  Poplar 4 

White  Pine 4 

Ash    3 

Red  Gum 2 

Maple ... 2 

Yellow  Pine 1 

Basswood 1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

36.  Electrical  Machinery  and  Apparatus.   Oak 

is  the  leading  wood  in  the  manufacture  of  elec- 
trical machinery  and  apparatus,  while  white 
pine  and  spruce  are  also  of  much  importance. 
The  three  supply  55  per  cent  of  the  annual  re- 
quirement of  about  18  million  feet.  Many  other 
woods  are  used  in  smaller  quantity. 

Much  of  the  spruce  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  conduits,  reels,  and  spools  for  wire;  while 
some  birch,  white  pine,  yellow  poplar,  red  gum, 
and  basswood  are  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
Railway  signal  devices  require  most  of  the  white 
cedar  and  cypress  used  in  this  industry,  since 
these  woods  offer  good  resistance  to  the  ele- 
ments. Rough  telephone  boxes  are  made  of 
hemlock,  oak,  yellow  poplar,  and  maple;  while 


Creosoted  Block  of  Longleaf  Pine  after  Five  Years'   Service  in 
Congress  Street  Pavement,  Chicago,  111. 


Photo  by  courtesy  of  U.  8.  Wood  Preserring  Co. 

Laying  Creosoted  Wood  Block  Pavement  in  Chicago 
Plate   26 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Interior  of  a  Sawmill,  Showing  Method  of  Timber  Construction 


Maple  Flooring  in  a  Dancing  Hall 
Plate   27 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  209 

telephone  booths — in  which  appearance  is  im- 
portant— are  made  from  such  woods  as  oak  and 
birch.  Yellow  poplar  and  oak  are  used  for  the 
base  blocks  for  electrical  devices;  while  many 
high-grade  woods  are  used  in  switchboards  and 
telephone  cabinets. 

Illinois  seems  to  be  the  most  prominent  State 
in  the  manufacture  of  electrical  machinery  and 
apparatus,  but  large  quantities  are  also  pro- 
duced in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

TABLE  50 

Electrical  Machinery  and  Apparatus 
(Annual  lumber  consumption,  18  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak 27 

White  Pine 17 

Spruce   11 

Yellow  Pine 7 

Maple 7 

Birch    4 

Cedar 4 

Larch 4 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Elm    3 

Walnut 3 

Beech 2 

Mahogany    2 

Basswood 2 

Hemlock    1 

Red  Gum 1 

Cypress    1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

37.  Brushes.  The  manufacture  of  brushes 
consumes  about  13  million  feet  of  wood  annually 
of  more  than  thirty  species,  of  which  beech  sup- 


210  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

plies  nearly  half,  and  birch  and  maple  each  15 
per  cent. 

There  are  so  many  different  kinds,  grades,  and 
sizes  of  brashes  and  brooms  that  there  is  a  wide 
range  in  the  quality  of  material  employed.  The 
more  expensive  hand  brushes  have  backs  artis- 
tically turned  from  ebony,  mahogany,  rosewood, 
maple,  cherry,  walnut,  and  birch;  while,  for 
scrubbing  and  whitewash  brushes,  beech  is  very 
largely  used.  Maple,  beech,  and  birch  are  em- 
ployed for  paint  brushes,  as  well  as  for  duster 
handles.  For  many  of  the  cheaper  brushes,  va- 
rious woods  are  used. 

Pennsylvania  uses  more  wood  than  any  other 
State  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes ;  while  Ohio, 
New  York,  Maryland,  Maine,  and  Massachu- 
setts are  also  prominent  in  the  production  of 
these  articles. 

TABLE  51 

Brushes 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  13  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Beech 49 

Birch    15 

Maple 15 

Basswood 6 

Cherry 4 

Red  Gum 2 

Yellow  Poplar 2 

Elm 1 

Hickory   1 

Other  Woods    5 

Total    100 

38.  Dowels.    Dowels  are  wooden  pegs  used  to 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  211 

hold  boards  together,  edge  to  edge,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  table  tops  and  counters,  or  to  hold 
the  parts  of  sash,  doors,  and  similar  articles  to- 
gether. They  are  usually  made  of  the  strong- 
est hardwoods,  and  are  driven  tightly  into  auger 
or  gimlet  holes  to  make  strong,  close-fitting 
joints.  More  than  90  per  cent  of  the  dowels  are 
made  from  birch,  beech,  and  maple,  and  espe- 
cially from  paper  birch.  Dowels  are  occasion- 
ally made  from  oak,  hickory,  or  ash. 

Dowel  rods  are  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  chairs,  children's  beds,  and  cribs,  and  for 
coops  in  which  poultry  is  shipped. 

The  equivalent  of  about  12  million  board  feet 
of  lumber  is  annually  consumed  in  dowel  mak- 
ing, and  nearly  two-thirds  of  it  in  the  State  of 
Maine.  Michigan  and  New  York  also  produce 
dowels  in  considerable  quantities. 

TABLE  52 
Dowels 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  12  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Birch    68 

Beech 15 

Maple 11 

Elm    1 

Basswood 1 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

39.  Elevators.  Under  this  heading  is  included 
the  wood  used  in  the  manufacture  of  elevators 
and  elevator  parts,  including  gates,  dumb  wait- 
ers, platforms,  guides,  and  frames. 


212  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Ash  and  oak  are  frequently  used  for  the 
framework  and  heavy  platforms  of  freight  and 
passenger  elevators.  Maple  is  principally  used 
for  elevator  floors  and  guides;  while  white  and 
yellow  pine  are  also  used  for  guides,  frames,  and 
platforms  in  places  where  great  strength  is  not 
required.  Dumb-waiter  cars  are  made  from  ma- 
ple, ash,  birch,  and  some  of  the  lighter  woods. 
Elevator  finish  is  often  made  of  yellow  poplar. 
In  the  more  highly  finished  elevators,  mahog- 
any, ash,  birch,  and  oak  are  used  for  interior 
trim. 

New  York  appears  to  be  the  leading  State  in 
the  manufacture  of  elevators,  while  this  indus- 
try is  about  of  equal  magnitude  in  Illinois  and 
Pennsylvania. 

TABLE  53 

Elevators 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  10  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Yellow  Pine    36 

White  Pine 17 

Maple 16 

Hemlock    10 

Oak    10 

Douglas  Fir 4 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Ash    1 

Other  Woods     3 

Total    100 

40.  Saddles  and  Harness.  Strength  is  an  es- 
sential element  in  the  woods  used  in  saddle  and 
harness  making;  so  98  per  cent  of  them  are  hard- 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  213 

woods,  among  which  beech  and  ash  are  the  most 
prominent. 

The  principal  parts  in  which  wood  is  used  are 
saddle  trees,  stirrups,  and  hames.  Ash  is  largely 
used  for  hames,  and  to  some  extent,  also,  are 
beech,  maple,  and  oak.  Stirrups  are  made  of 
elm  or  hackberry,  with  the  best  ones  of  oak.  In 
the  West,  Douglas  fir,  as  well  as  Oregon  maple, 
is  used  for  saddle  trees.  Pack  saddles  are  made 
from  Oregon  cottonwood,  alder,  or  ash. 

TABLE  54 

Saddles  and  Harness 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  9  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Beech 30 

Ash : 23 

Maple    16 

Oak    14 

Red  Gum 12 

Elm    3 

Douglas  Fir 1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

41.  Playground  Equipment.  Under  this  head- 
ing are  included  merry-go-rounds,  lawn  and 
other  swings,  athletic  platforms,  and  various 
field  appliances.  Since  nearly  all  such  equip- 
ment requires  strength  and  wearing  qualities, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  almost  90  per  cent  of  the 
9  million  feet  of  wood  annually  used  for  this 
purpose  consists  of  beech,  oak,  yellow  pine,  and 
maple. 

Because  of  its  strength  and  toughness,  beech 


214  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

is  much  used  for  swings  where  subject  to  vibra- 
tion and  irregular  strains.  Longleaf  pine  is 
much  used  for  the  platform  sills  of  merry-go- 
rounds;  and  so  are  also  Douglas  fir  and  oak. 
Birch  and  other  woods  are  used  for  lawn  swings 
and  settees;  and  black  ash,  for  porch  swings. 
Elm  is  frequently  used  for  bent  parts  in  play- 
ground equipment;  and  maple,  for  the  exterior 
finish  of  merry-go-rounds. 

Among  the  more  prominent  States  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  such  equipment  are  Indiana,  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  and  New  York. 

TABLE  55 

Playground  Equipment 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  9  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used                                                 Per  Cent 

Beech 34 

Oak    28 

Yellow  Pine    16 

Maple 9 

Elm    4 

Ash    2 

Birch    2 

Spruce   1 

Hickory 1 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

42.  Insulator  Pins  and  Brackets.  Practically 
the  only  woods  used  in  the  manufacture  of  insu- 
lator pins  and  brackets  are  black  locust  and 
white  or  chestnut  oak.  Because  of  its  exceed- 
ingly great  strength  and  durability,  black  lo- 
cust has  always  been  the  favorite  wood  for  this 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  215 

purpose;  but  the  demand  for  pins  and  brackets 
has  become  so  great  that  much  oak  also  is  now 
used,  the  pins  and  brackets  of  this  wood  being 
given  a  treatment  with  a  preservative  to  pre- 
vent decay.  On  high-power  lines  with  large 
porcelain  insulators,  hickory  pins  are  used  to 
some  extent. 

Nearly  all  of  the  insulator  pins  and  brackets 
are  manufactured  in  North  Carolina  and  Vir- 
ginia, where  suitable  raw  material  is  most 
abundant. 

TABLE  56 

Insulator  Pins  and  Brackets 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  9  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Locust    53 

Oak    47 

Total    100 

43.  Butcher  Blocks  and  Skewers.  Butcher 
blocks  are  chiefly  made  from  maple,  red  gum, 
and  sycamore;  while  skewers  are  made  most 
largely  from  hickory,  beech,  and  birch.  Strength, 
and  toughness  are  essential  qualities  in  skew- 
ers, since  they  must  be  of  small  size;  while  a 
dense  fiber  that  resists  chopping  and  does  not 
splinter  up  is  required  for  meat  blocks.  In  the 
earlier  days,  these  blocks  were  chiefly  made 
from  solid  sections  of  sycamore,  but  the  prac- 
tice at  present  is  to  build  them  up  from  ordi- 
nary sizes  of  lumber. 


216  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  57 

Butcher  Blocks  and  Skewers 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  8  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Maple 26 

Red  Gum 22 

Sycamore 20 

Hickory    16 

Beech 11 

Birch    3 

White  Pine 2 

Total    100 

44.  Clocks.  The  clock-making  industry  in 
the  United  States  requires  annually  the  equiva- 
lent of  about  8  million  feet  of  lumber,  used 
chiefly  for  cases.  Large  clocks  of  the  "grand- 
father" type  are  now  much  in  fashion;  and  in 
the  making  of  such  cases,  some  of  the  finer  woods 
and  the  highest  class  of  work  are  employed. 
Oak  is  much  used  for  clock  frames;  birch,  for 
turnery;  and  walnut,  mahogany,  and  cherry,  for 
decorative  effects  in  the  higher-priced  articles. 
Clock  bottoms  are  made  of  pine ;  while  the  ship- 
ping cases  are  frequently  made  from  yellow 
pine,  which  accounts  for  much  of  this  wood 
shown  in  Table  58.  Red  oak  is  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cases  for  wall  clocks;  and  bass- 
wood  and  yellow  poplar,  for  backs  and  also  for 
cases  which  are  to  be  enameled.  Red  gum  is 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  cases  in  which 
a  Circassian  walnut  effect  is  desired. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  wood  used  in  clock 
manufacture  is  consumed  in  Connecticut,  and 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  217 

nearly  all  the  rest  in  New  York,  these  two  States 
being  the  only  ones  in  which  clock-making  is 
an  extensive  industry. 

TABLE  58 

Clocks 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  8  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Oak    33 

Basswood    18 

Yellow  Poplar    14 

Yellow  Pine 12 

White  Pine 6 

Tupelo 4 

Cherry 4 

Chestnut    4 

Mahogany    3 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

45.  Signs  and  Supplies.  Under  this  heading 
are  included  the  manufacture  of  professional 
display  boards,  stretcher  strips  for  oil  paintings, 
window  display  racks,  and  similar  articles. 
White  pine,  hemlock,  and  Western  yellow  pine 
are  much  used  for  these  purposes  because  of 
their  light  weight  and  color,  ease  of  working, 
and  capacity  to  take  paints  and  oils,  the  latter 
being  specially  required  for  many  kinds  of  signs. 
The  hardwoods  grouped  in  this  classification 
are  chiefly  used  for  display  racks  and  hangers. 

Many  of  the  large  bill  posting  boards  are  not 
special  factory  products,  but  are  simply  made 
by  nailing  up  tongued-and-grooved  flooring  on 
supports. 


218  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  59 

Signs  and  Supplies 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  7  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used                                                  Per  Cent 

White  Pine 47 

Hemlock    15 

Western  Yellow  Pine 15 

Yellow  Pine 6 

Red  Gum 3 

Elm    3 

Redwood   2 

Maple 1 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Basswood    1 

Cottonwood 1 

Buckeye 1 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

46.  Printing  Materials.  The  equivalent  of 
more  than  5  million  board  feet  of  lumber  is  an- 
nually used  in  the  manufacture  of  printing  ma- 
terials, of  which  cherry  supplies  nearly  two- 
fifths.  This  classification  includes  engraving 
blocks,  electrotype  blocks,  engraving  boards, 
and  printing  press  attachments.  Engraving  and 
electrotype  blocks  and  bases  are  generally  made 
of  cherry,  basswood,  oak,  birch,  maple,  or  beech, 
and  sometimes  of  mahogany.  Engravers'  boards 
are  generally  made  of  basswood;  and  the  long 
wooden  fingers  on  cylinder  presses,  from  chest- 
nut. For  large  wood  type  which  must  stand  up 
under  heavy  service,  the  hardest  of  hard  maple 
is  used. 

Among  the  more  prominent  States  in  the  con- 
sumption of  wood  for  printing  materials,  are 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  219 

New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maine,  and  Wiscon- 
sin. 

TABLE  60 
Printing  Materials 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  5  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Cherry 39 

Maple 13 

Ash 7 

Basswood    7 

Yellow  Pine 6 

Beech   6 

Oak    5 

Chestnut    5 

Birch    5 

Yellow  Poplar 3 

Elm    2 

Mahogany    1 

Other  Woods 2 

Total    100 

47.  Weighing  Apparatus.  Approximately  the 
same  amount  of  wood  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  weighing  apparatus  or  scales  of  various  kinds 
as  is  required  for  printing  devices  and  machines. 
The  qualities  required  are  different,  however; 
and  consequently  we  find  that  three-fifths  of  the 
wood  used  in  the  manufacture  of  weighing  ap- 
paratus consists  of  spruce  and  yellow  pine, 
which  offer  desirable  combinations  of  light 
weight  and  strength.  Three  other  harder  and 
stronger  woods  used  to  less  extent  are  maple, 
birch,  and  beech;  while  white  pine,  oak,  Doug- 
las fir,  yellow  poplar,  and  a  half-dozen  others 
make  up  the  remaining  10  per  cent  of  wood 
material  consumed  in  this  industry. 


220  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE   61 

Weighing  Apparatus 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  5  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Spruce    36 

Yellow  Pine 24 

Birch    14 

Maple 9 

Beech    7 

White  Pine 3 

Oak    3 

Douglas  Fir 2 

Yellow  Poplar 1 

Other  Woods 1 

Total    100 

48.  Whips,  Canes,  and  Umbrella  Sticks.  The 
manufacture  of  such  apparently  small  articles 
as  whips,  canes,  and  umbrella  sticks  annually 
requires  the  equivalent  of  5  million  board  feet 
of  lumber,  although  much  of  the  material  is 
never  put  into  lumber  form,  and  the  rarer  im- 
ported kinds  are  purchased  by  the  piece  or 
pound. 

Among  the  native  woods  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, beech  supplies  57  per  cent  of  the  total 
consumption;  and  maple  and  birch,  33  per  cent 
more,  leaving  only  10  per  cent  for  some  twenty 
other  species.  Beech  is  largely  used  for  whip 
stocks  and  umbrella  sticks,  as  are  also  maple 
and  birch.  Handles  are  frequently  made  from 
ebony,  while  many  imported  woods  and  roots 
are  used  for  the  more  expensive  cane  and  um- 
brella sticks. 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  221 

TABLE  62 

Whips,  Canes  and  Umbrella  Sticks 

(Annual  wood  consumption,  5  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Beech 57 

Maple 22 

Birch    11 

Ebony 4 

Hickory    2 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

In  the  manufacture  of  these  articles,  New 
York  and  Massachusetts  hold  equal  rank,  each 
supplying  about  40  per  cent  of  the  total  prod- 
uct, while  the  bulk  of  the  remainder  comes  from 
Pennsylvania. 

49.  Brooms  and  Carpet-Sweepers.  Ordinary 
broom  handles  are  listed  with  handles ;  hence  this 
classification  relates  chiefly  to  carpet-sweepers. 

TABLE  63 

Brooms  and  Carpet-Sweepers 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  2  million  board  feet) 

Woods  Used  Per  Cent 

Maple 25 

Birch    23 

Oak    18 

Sycamore 12 

Ash    10 

Red  Gum 5 

Beech 4 

Mahogany    2 

Circassian  Walnut 1 

Total    100 

The  manufacture  of  carpet-sweepers  on  a  large 


222  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

scale  is  a  strictly  modern  industry,  and  is  cen- 
tered in  Michigan.  The  making  of  carpet- 
sweepers  has  come  to  be  quite  an  art;  and  these 
articles  are  finished  in  a  wide  variety  of  durable 
and  ornamental  woods,  in  order  to  match  many 
styles  of  house  finish  and  furniture.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  nine  woods  listed  in  Table  63,  rose- 
wood, laurel,  and  black  walnut  are  recorded  as 
being  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture 
of  carpet-sweepers. 

50.  Firearms.  Black  walnut  has  been  the  fa- 
vorite gun-stock  wood  for  many  years,  and  still 
supplies  four-fifths  of  the  wood  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  firearms.  More  recently,  however, 
red  gum  has  come  into  prominence  for  stocks 
in  which  a  Circassian  walnut  effect  is  desired, 
while  a  small  percentage  of  the  more  expen- 
sive firearms  carry  stocks  of  the  true  imported 
walnut.  A  small  amount  of  English  walnut  is 
also  used  for  pistol  stocks,  and  birch  occasion- 
ally for  gun  stocks,  while  boxwood  is  a  favorite 
material  for  gun  rods. 

Most  of  the  firearms  used  in  this  country  are 
made  in  Connecticut  and  New  York. 

TABLE  64 

Firearms 

(Annual  lumber  consumption,  2  million  board  feet) 
Woods  Used                                                  Per  Cent 

Black  Walnut 81 

Red  Gum 17 

Circassian  Walnut : 2 

Total    .  ..100 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  223 

51.  Minor  Uses.  There  are  three  smaller  but 
important  wood-using  industries  which  in  the 
aggregate  do  not  consume  much  more  than  the 
equivalent  of  1  million  board  feet  of  wood 
yearly.  These  are  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
limbs,  tobacco  pipes,  and  aeroplanes. 

TABLE  65 

Minor  Uses  of  Wood  in  Manufacturing 
(Total  annual  wood  consumption,  1  million  board  feet) 

Artificial  Limbs—  Per  Cent 

Birch    61 

Maple    21 

Willow 8 

Hickory 6 

Yucca 6 

Lancewood    4 

Other  Woods 4 

Total    100 

Tobacco  Pipes —  Per  Cent 

French  Brier 66 

Apple 25 

Kalmia    4 

Red  Gum 2 

Other  Woods 3 

Total    100 

Aeroplanes —  Per  Cent 

Spruce    63 

Ash 16 

Mahogany    8 

Yellow  Poplar 6 

Oak    5 

Hickory 2 

Total    100 

The   requirements  for  aeroplane   wood   are 


224  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

most  exacting.  Above  all,  it  must  be  straight- 
grained,  strong,  light,  and  perfectly  free  from 
defects.  The  upright  posts  which  hold  the 
planes  apart  are  chiefly  made  from  spruce;  the 
planes  are  also  made  of  strips  of  spruce  glued  to- 
gether, or  " laminated,"  which  form  of  construc- 
tion gives  added  strength  and  freedom  from 
splitting  under  stress.  Aeroplane  beams  are 
generally  of  spruce.  Ash  is  often  used  for  the 
laminated  propellers,  while  hickory  is  used  for 
the  axles  and  the  braces  over  them.  Propellers 
are  also  made  either  wholly  of  spruce  or  of 
built-up  layers  of  ash  and  mahogany.  Mahog- 
any is  used  in  the  steering  wheels.  The  skids 
which  hold  the  landing  wheels  are  usually  of 
oak,  ash,  or  hickory. 

WOOD-USING  INDUSTRY  REPORTS 

The  reports  of  the  United  States  Forest  Serv- 
ice upon  the  wood-using  industries  of  24  States 
are  now  available,  some  of  the  reports  being  al- 
ready out  of  print.  Since  these  reports  are 
mainly  of  local  value,  they  have  been  printed 
by  some  department  of  the  government  of  the 
particular  State  interested,  or  by  an  associa- 
tion or  periodical  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
lumbering  or  conservation.  The  bulletins  listed 
below  may  be  secured  in  each  case  from  the  ad- 
dress given.  In  writing  for  those  for  which 
there  is  no  charge,  postage  should  accompany 
the  request. 


i 


A  B  C  D 

Torch   Tests   Showing   Effect   of   Paint   in   Preventing   Spread   of 

Fire  and  Retarding  Charring  of  Wood 

Effect  at  end  of  1-minute  test  on  untreated  shingle  (A)  and 
painted  shingle  (B);  3-minute  test,  untreated  (C),  and  painted 
(D). 


Forest  Service  Method  of  Making  Test  to  Determine  End-Crushing 
Strength,  or  Strength  in  Compression  Parallel  to  the  Grain 

Plate  29 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


THE  USES  OF  LUMBER  225 

BULLETINS  ON  WOOD-USING  INDUSTRIES  OF  VARIOUS  STATES 

State  Obtained  from  Price 

Alabama  The  Lumber  Trade  Journal,  New  Orleans,  La $ 0.25 

California  G.  M.  Homans,  State  Forester,  Sacramento,  Gal 

Connecticut  W.  O.  Filley,    State   Forester,   New   Haven,    Conn 

Florida  W.  A.  McRae,   Com'r  of  Agric.,  Tallahassee,  Fla 

Illinois  J.  C.  Blair,    Univ.   of  111.,    Urbana,    111 

Iowa  Iowa   State    College,    Ames,    Iowa 

Kentucky  J.   B.   Barton,    State   Forester,   Frankfort,   Ky 

Louisiana  The  Lumber  Trade  Journal,  New  Orleans,  La 25 

Maine  State   Forest  Commissioner,   Augusta,   Me 

Michigan  Public  Domain  Commission,  Lansing,  Mich 

Minnesota  W.    T.    Cox,    State    Forester,    St.    Paul,    Minn 

Mississippi  The  Lumber  Trade  Journal,   New  Orleans,   La 25 

Missouri  St.   Louis   Lumberman,   St.   Louis,   Mo 25 

New  Hampshire  E.    A.    Hirst,    State    Forester,    Concord,    N.    H 

New  Jersey  Alfred  Gaskill,   State  Forester.  Trenton,  N.  J 

New  York  N.  Y.  State  College  of  Forestry,  Syracuse,  N.  T 

North  Carolina  J.  S.   Holmes,   State  Forester,   Chapel  Hill,  N.  C 

Ohio  Edmund  Secrest,   State  Forester,   Wooster,   Ohio 

Pennsylvania  R_   S.   Conklin,   Com'r  of  Forestry,   Harrisburg,   Pa 

Tennessee  Southern  Lumberman,  Nashville,  Tenn 25 

Texas  The  Lumber  Trade  Journal,  New  Orleans,   La 25 

Vermont  F.   A.   Hawes,   State   Forester,   Burlington,  Vt 

Virginia  G.  W.  Koiner,   Com'r  of  Agric.,  Richmond,  Va 

Wisconsin  E.    M.   Griffith,    State   Forester,    Madison,   Wit 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


fT^HE  properties  and  uses  of  the  principal 
kinds  of  timber  that  are  manufactured 
into  lumber  in  the  United  States,  are 
briefly  mentioned  in  this  chapter;  also  those  of 
the  more  important  imported  woods.  The  va- 
rious species  are  referred  to  by  the  names  by; 
which  they  are  most  widely  known;  and  the  or- 
der is  alphabetic,  without  regard  to  the  impor- 
tance of  any  species  in  point  of  lumber  produc- 
tion. 

Table  107,  on  page  318,  shows  the  present  an- 
nual lumber  production  in  the  United  States. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  lumber  output  goes 
directly  into  general  building  and  construction, 
and  there  is  no  way  in  which  the  specific  uses  of 
such  material  can  be  ascertained.  The  figures 
given  in  this  chapter  upon  the  consumption  of 
lumber  represent  chiefly  the  results  of  the  state 
and  government  studies  of  the  wood-using  in- 
dustries, during  the  course  of  which  a  great  deal 
of  valuable  information  has  been  accumulated 
upon  the  factory  uses  of  wood.  In  order  to  avoid 
tiresome  figures  and  to  show  the  true  propor- 
tions more  readily,  the  tables  made  up  from  the 
statistical  reports  are  in  percentages;  that  is, 
the  percentage  of  the  total  factory  consumption 
of  each  species  is  shown  for  each  industry  in 
which  the  species  is  used,  the  total  factory  con- 
sumption in  each  case  being  100  per  cent. 

226 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  227 

RED  ALDER 

Red  alder  (Alnus  oregona)  is  a  Pacific  Coast 
hardwood,  found  chiefly  west  of  the  Cascade 
mountains,  in  Oregon  and  Washington.  The 
wood  is  reddish  brown  in  color,  with  rather  fine, 
even  grain,  compact,  and  hard.  It  works  and 
polishes  well,  and  makes  a  good  imitation  of 
mahogany  when  desired. 

The  main  factory  uses  of  red  alder  are  shown 
in  Table  66. 

TABLE  66 

Factory  Uses  of  Bed  Alder 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Furniture    63 

Mill  Work 19 

Handles 16 

Other  Uses 2 

Total 100 

The  specific  uses  reported  for  red  alder  are 
for  archery  bows,  broom  handles,  columns,  ta- 
bles, interior  finish,  pack  saddles,  pulleys,  and 
turnery. 

APPLE 

The  domestic  apple  tree  supplies  a  very  com- 
pact hardwood  that  is  much  prized  for  a  number 
of  small  articles.  While  apple  wood  is  generally 
cut  only  when  old  orchards  are  cleaned  out,  the 
reports  indicate  a  factory  consumption  of  about 
300,000  board  feet  of  this  wood  yearly.  The 
main  items  of  use  are  as  indicated  in  Table  67. 


228  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  67 
Factory  Uses  of  Apple  Wood 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Handles   48 

Tobacco   Pipes    38 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments 8 

Boxes  and  Crates 4 

Other  Uses 2 

Total 100 

More  specifically,  applewood  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  planes,  mallets,  saw  handles, 
rules,  canes,  whips,  and  umbrella  handles. 

ASH 

Botanists  distinguish  a  number  of  species  of 
ash  in  the  United  States;  but,  for  commercial 
purposes,  only  three  are  usually  specified — 
white  ash,  black  ash,  and  Oregon  ash. 

White  ash  (Fraxinus  americana)  is  slightly 
under  the  average  weight  and  hardness  of  hard- 
woods, but  of  more  than  average  strength  and 
stiffness,  which  makes  it  very  (useful  for  many 
purposes. 

Black  ash  (Fraxinus  nigra)  is  somewhat 
softer  and  weaker  than  white  ash.  It  is  much 
less  generally  distributed  throughout  the  East- 
ern States  than  the  former,  and  is  most  largely 
manufactured  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  The 
toughness  of  black  ash  made  it  popular  wood  for 
split  hoops  for  many  years. 

Oregon  ash  (Fraxinus  oregona),  while  not 
very  abundant  in  that  State,  yields  a  hard, 
strong,  tough  wood  which  takes  an  excellent  pol- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  229 

ish  and  hence  is  useful  for  fixtures  and  furni- 
ture in  addition  to  its  main  use  for  handles. 

The  statistical  reports  do  not  separate  the 
various  species  of  ash,  and  their  uses  are  sum- 
marized in  Table  68. 

TABLE  68 

Factory  Uses  of  Ash 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Handles   22 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 21 

Vehicles 15 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 8 

Mill  Work   7 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 6 

Car  Construction 6 

Agricultural  Implements 4 

Boxes  and  Crates 4 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 3 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 1 

Other  Uses 3 

Total 100 

In  addition  to  the  above,  particular  uses  for 
white  ash  are  for: 

Aeroplanes  Car  repairing 

Automobiles  (running  boards)  Chairs 

Bars  (vehicle)  Church  pews 

Baseball  bats  Churns 

Bent  panels    (light  vehicle  Churn  lids 

bodies)  Corn  planters 

Beams  (cultivators)  Cylinders  (cider  mill) 

Baby  perambulators  Doors 

Bobsleds  Dowels 

Bows  Electrical  apparatus 

Boxes  Elevator  parts 

Butter  tubs  (heading)  Engine  cabs 

Butter  tubs  (staves)  Felloes 

Cabinet  work  Flooring 

Car  construction  (framing)  Frames  (automobile  bodies) 


230 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Frames    (buggy  and  carriage 

bodies) 

Frames  (light  vehicle  seats) 
Frames  (wagon  boxes) 
Furniture 
Gears  (coach) 
Handles 

Handles  (edge  tool) 
Hames  (wood) 
Harrows 
Hoe  handles 
Hose  truck  bodies 
Hounds  (vehicles) 
Interior  finish 
Machinery    (construction) 
Kitchen  cabinets 
Keels  (boat) 
Moldings 
Panels 

Parallel  bars 
Patterns 
Piano  parts 
Planing  mill  products 


Plow  beams 

Pokes  (animal) 

Poles   (heavy  vehicles) 

Posts  (vehicles) 

Plumbers'  woodwork 

Pump  rods 

Rails 

Rake  heads 

Rake   (garden)   handles 

Rims   (vehicle) 

Refrigerators 

Sash 

Shovel  handles 

Soil  rollers 

Staves 

Tables 

Tools 

Trunks 

Vehicle  bodies  and  parts 

Yokes 

Wagon  parts 

Well-digging  machines 

Windmills 


Black  ash  enters  into  the  manufacture  of: 


Auto  seats 

Baseball  bats 

Boat  finish 

Box  shocks 

Buffets  (exterior  work) 

Buffets  (inside  work) 

Butter  tubs 

Candy  pails 

Chairs  (kitchen) 

Commodes 

Cooperage  stock 

Desks  (inside  work) 

Fixtures 

Flooring 

Furniture  (interior) 

Handles  (garden  tools) 

Handles  (small  tools) 

Hayloader  parts 

Hoops  (butter  tubs) 


Hoppers  (fruit  and  vegetable) 

Ice  chests 

Interior  finish 

Kitchen  cabinets 

Lard  tubs 

Moldings  (piano) 

Music  cabinets  (inside  work) 

Music  cabinets  (exterior  work) 

Picture  moldings 

Pike  poles 

Racked  hoops 

Refrigerators 

Sills  (vehicle) 

Spice  kegs 

Slats  (bed) 

Sugar  buckets 

Trunk  slats 

Washboards 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  231 

Oregon  ash  is  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in 
making  boats,  book  cases,  chairs,  desks,  tables, 
handles,  saddles,  and  vehicles. 
ASPEN 

The  aspens,  of  which  there  two  species — the 
common  popple  or  quaking  aspen  (Populus 
tremuloides),  and  the  large-tooth  aspen  (Pop- 
ulus grandidentata) — are  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  belong  to  the 
family  of  true  poplars,  of  which  the  cottonwoods 
are  the  largest  representatives.  The  wood  of 
the  aspens  is  light  in  weight  and  color,  soft,  and 
not  strong.  In  stiffness,  however,  it  ranks  with 
many  heavier  hardwoods. 

Aspen  is  not  separately  tabulated  in  many 
state  reports ;  but  probably  its  largest  use  is  for 
the  making  of  boxes  and  crates,  to  which  pur- 
pose it  is  excellently  suited.  Some  of  the  spe- 
cific uses  listed  for  aspen  are  as  follows : 

Basket  bottoms  Handles  (oyster  knife) 

Basket  hoops  Jelly  buckets 

Boxes  Novelties 

Boxes  (piano)  Pails 

Boxes  (shoe  pegs)  Shoe  fillers 

Boxes  (veneer)  Shoe  forms 

Brushes  Shoe  lasts 

Buckets  Shoe  trees 

Casing  Spice  kegs 

Ceiling  Spool  heads 

Crates  Spools 

Dowels  Sugar  buckets 

Excelsior  Toothpicks 

Fish  kits  Toys 

Frames  (door)  Toy  wheelbarrows  (bodies) 

Frames  (window)  Vehicle  body  parts 

Furniture  (hidden  work)  Wood  wool 

Handles  (dipper) 


232  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

BALM  OF  GILEAD 

Balm  of  Gilead  (Populus  balsamifera)  is  also 
a  true  poplar;  and  the  wood  is  much  like  that 
of  its  relatives  with  respect  to  weight,  strength, 
and  uses.  The  supply  is  not  large,  since  the 
tree  occurs  but  infrequently  in  the  Northern 
States. 

Balm  of  Gilead  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boxes  and  crates,  but  also  has  a  place 
in  the  making  of  the  following  articles : 

Berry  buckets  Grape  baskets 

Built-up  panels  Handles 

Card-table  tops  Hat  racks 

Ceiling  Novelties 

Druggist  barrels  Pails 

Egg-cases  Spindles 

Excelsior  Tubs 

Furniture  shelving  Wood  wool 

BASSWOOD 

With  the  possible  exception  of  willow  and 
buckeye,  basswood  (Tilia  americana)  is  the 
lightest,  softest,  and  weakest  of  the  hardwoods. 
It  is  neither  stiff  nor  tough,  but,  because  of  its 
even  grain,  white  color,  and  extreme  ease  of 
working,  is  one  of  the  most  widely  used  woods. 
The  more  important  factory  uses  reported  are 
as  shown  in  Table  69. 

TABLE  69 

Factory  Uses  of  Basswood 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes   and   Crates 23 

Mill  Work 16 

Woodwork  and  Novelties 15 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 11 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


233 


Trunks  and  Valises 6 

Picture  Frames  and  Molding 5 

Excelsior    4 

Musical  Instruments 3 

Toys 2 

Agricultural  Implements 2 

Vehicles   2 

Matches    1 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 1 

Car  Construction    1 

Laundry  Appliances 1 

Tobacco  Boxes 1 

Other  Uses  .  .  6 


Total 100 

The  diversity  of  the  uses  of  basswood  is  indi- 
cated by  the  following  list  of  articles  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  this  wood  is  used  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree : 


Agricultural  implements 

Altars 

Apparatus  parts   (electric) 

Automobiles 

Backings    (furniture) 

Backs   (organ) 

Baseboards 

Baskets  (fruit  and  vegetable) 


Bellows   (organ) 

Boats 

Bookcases  (inside  work) 

Boxes 

Breadboards 

Bureaus  (inside  work) 

Butter  ladles 

Cabinets    (kitchen) 

Cameras 

Candy  pails 

Car  construction 

Car  repairing 

Casings   (building) 

China  closets  (interior  work) 


Church  pews 

Circus  seats 

Cigar  boxes 

Cleats   (organ) 

Clothes   bars 

Commodes 

Coops    (poultry) 

Cornice 

Corn  shellers 

Couches    (box) 

Crating 

Cupboards 

Desks   (school) 

Drawer  bottoms 

Engraving  boards 

Fans    (electric) 

Feed   mills 

File  cases 

Fixtures  (bar) 

Fixtures   (barber  shop) 

Fixtures  (store  and  office) 

Flag  poles 

Frames   (couches) 


234 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Frames   (davenports) 

Frames   (hand  mirror) 

Frames   (lounges) 

Furniture  (church) 

Furniture   (interior) 

Gameboards 

Games  of  chance 

Go-carts 

Grain  separators 

Guitars 

Handles 

Hayloader  parts 

Heading    (barrels) 

Hoppers  (fruit  and  vegetable) 

Incubators   (bodies) 

Ironing  boards 

Interior  finish   (building) 

Kitchen  cabinets 

Ladders   (extension) 

Laundry  machinery 

Lodge  furniture 

Machinery  construction 

Mandolins 

Millwork 

Moldings    (casket) 

Music  cabinets  (interior) 

Organ  cases    (folding  organ) 

Organ  frames 

Pails 


Parlor  furniture  (frames) 
Pastry  boards 
Patterns 
Piano  keys 
Picture  molding 
Pipe  organs  (interior  parts) 
Pyrography  boards 
Refrigerators 
Sample  cases 

Seeder    boxes     (farm    imple- 
ments) 

Sheathing   (building) 
Shoe  forms 
Siding    (house) 
Signboards 
Staves 

Stirrups  (head  blocks) 
Stirrups  (neck  blocks) 
Swing  seats 
Tables 

Thermometers 
Threshing  machines 
Toys 
Trunks 

Vehicle  bodies 
Violin  cases 
Washboards 
Washing  machines 
Yardsticks 


BEECH 

Beech  (Fagus  atropunicea)  is  a  moderately 
hard,  strong,  heavy  hardwood  that  has  a  wide 
range  of  usefulness  for  many  purposes.  While 
the  reports  indicate  a  larger  consumption  of 
beech  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes  and  crates 
than  in  any  other  industry,  a  large  amount  is 
used  in  general  mill  work,  including  flooring 
and  finishing,  and  for  furniture  and  fixtures, 
for  which  purposes  the  hardness  and  wear- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  235 

resisting  qualities  of  beech  are  especially  desir- 
able. 

TABLE  70 

Factory  Uses  of  Beech 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates    28 

Mill    Work    21 

Furniture  and  Fixtures    18 

Handles    6 

Woodenware  and  Novelties    5 

Laundry   Appliances    3 

Brushes     2 

Vehicles    2 

Agricultural    Implements    2 

Musical  Instruments    1 

Spools  and  Bobbins 1 

Toys    1 

Playground  Equipment   1 

Whips,  Canes,  etc 1 

Saddles  and  Hames 1 

Other  Uses   7 

Total    100 

A  still  better  idea  of  the  varied  uses  of  beech 
is  obtained  from  the  following  partial  list  of 
articles  into  the  manufacture  of  which  this  wood 
enters : 

Agricultural  implements  Brushes 

Auto-seat  frames  Built-up  panels 

Balls  Bungs 

Barber  chairs  Butcher  blocks 

Baseball  bats  Butter  dishes 

Baskets  Butter  tubs 

Beds'  (folding)  Cable  reels 

Boats  Candy  pails 

Bobbins  Cars 

Boxes  Chair  bottoms 

Brick  molds  Chair  rods 

Broom  handles  Cheese  boxes 


236 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Churns 

Cider  mills 

Clocks 

Clothes  pins 

Coat  hangers 

Coops 

Crating 

Dowels 

Drafting  tables 

Electrotype  plates 

Faucets 

Filing  cabinets 

Fixtures 

Furniture 

Hames 

Handles 

Hand  sleds 

Interior  finish 

Ironing  boards 

Ladders 

Lawn  swings 

Measures 

Musical  instruments 

Mouse  traps 

Neck  yokes 

Novelties 

Pails 

Panels 

Piano  cases 

Pipe  organs 

Plane  stocks 


Printers'  cabinets 

Pulleys 

Pumphandles 

Pump  buckets 

Refrigerators 

Rims  (bicycle) 

Rope  reels 

Sash 

Sectional  bookcases 

Show  cases 

Skates 

Sounding  boards 

Spindles 

Spools 

Stanchions 

Staves 

Stepladders 

Tables 

Tie  plugs 

Toys 

Trunks 

Tubs 

Vehicles 

Wardrobes 

Washing  machines 

Washboards 

Weighing  machines 

Wheelbarrows 

Window  screens 

Woodenware 


BIRCH 

Several  birches  are  recognized  by  botanists 
and  foresters;  but  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
practical  wood  user,  there  are  only  three  import- 
ant kinds — the  paper  or  white  birch  (Betula 
papyrifera),  the  yellow  birch  (Betula  lutea), 
and  the  red  or  cherry  birch  (Betula  lent  a). 
Paper  birch  is  found  across  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  is  most  abun- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  237 

dant  and  commercially  important  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  especially  in  Maine.  The  red  or  cherry 
birch  occurs  in  smaller  quantity  from  New  York 
southward  through  West  Virginia;  while  the 
yellow  birch  is  common  in  New  York,  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  Lake  States,  but  most  abundant  in 
the  latter  region.  The  heartwood  of  yellow 
birch  is  reddish,  and  much  of  it  is  marketed  and 
used  for  the  same  purposes  as  cherry  birch,  and, 
without  distinction  from  the  latter,  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  furniture,  interior  finish,  and  the 
like.  The  principal  uses  of  the  paper  or  white 
birch  are  for  spool  stock,  box  lumber,  wooden- 
ware,  dowels,  shoe  pegs,  and  other  small  articles. 
Closely  related  to  the  paper  birch  is  the  West- 
ern birch  (Betula  occidentalis),  a  small  amount 
of  which  is  used  for  interior  finish  in  Oregon 
and  Washington. 

The  wood  of  red  and  yellow  birch  is  heavy; 
of  average  hardness,  stiffness,  and  strength  for 
hardwood;  and  above  the  average  in  toughness. 
For  this  reason,  birch  makes  a  good  wagon  hub ; 
and  much  yellow  birch  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  factory  uses  of  the  various  birches  are 
summarized  in  Table  71. 

TABLE  71 

Factory  Uses  of  Birch 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill    Work    28 

Furniture   and  Fixtures    21 

Boxes  and  Crates    19 

Spools  and  Bobbins 7 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 6 

Vehicles    .  3 


238 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Musical  Instruments    3 

Handles   2 

Dowels 2 

Boot  and  Shoe  Findings 2 

Car  Construction    1 

Agricultural    Implements    1 

Other  Uses   .  5 


Total    100 

A  tabulation  of  the  uses  reported  for  red  and 
yellow  birch  gives  the  following  list: 


Automobiles 

Backgrounds  (display  win- 
dows) 

Balusters 

Barber  chairs 

Barber  shop  furnishings 

Barrel  starchers   (laundry) 

Baseboards 

Baskets  (fruit  and  vegetable) 

Billiard  tables 

Boat  parts 

Bobbins 

Bodies  (light  vehicles) 

Bookcases   (exterior) 

Bookcases   (interior) 

Bookracks 

Bottoms  (heavy  vehicle  bod- 
ies) 

Bottoms   (wagons) 

Boxes 

Boxes   (cheese) 

Boxes   (veneer) 

Box  shooks 

Brackets 

Broom  handles 

Brush  blocks 

Buffets  (bar  fixtures) 

Bureaus  (exterior) 

Butter  churns  (frames) 

Butter  molds 

Cabinets  (music  rolls) 


Cabinets  (phonograph  rec- 
ords) 

Cabinets   (toilets) 

Cabinet   work 

Cameras 

Canes 

Capitals 

Carpet  sweepers 

Carvings 

Cases   (medicine) 

Cases   (railroad  tickets) 

Casing 

Caskets 

Chair  frames  (upholstered 
furniture) 

Chairs 

Chairs   (adjustable) 

Chairs   (dining  room) 

Chair  seats 

Chairs  (office) 

China  closets 

Clocks 

Coffins 

Columns  (porch) 

Consoles 

Cooperage  stock   (slack) 

Cores   (veneer) 

Counters   (bar) 

Counters  (store  and  office 
fixtures) 

Cradles 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


239 


Crating 

Creamery  accessories 
Crutches 

Cutting  boards  (meat) 
Doors 
Dowels 
Dressers 
Dressing  tables 
Electrotype  bases 
Elevator  cars 
Equipment    (playground) 
Farm  implement    parts 
Farm  machinery    parts 
Fixtures   (bank) 
Fixtures   (laboratory) 
Fixtures   (soda   fountain) 
Fixtures   (store  and  office) 
Flooring 
Folding  beds 
Frames   (cheval   mirror) 
Frames   (couches) 
Frames   (davenports) 
Frames   (light  vehicle  bodies) 
Frames   (light  vehicle  seats) 
Frames   (lounges) 
Gameboards 

Gear  parts   (light  vehicles) 
Glove  boxes 
Grain  doors 
Grilles 
Grille  work 
Guitars 
Hallracks 
Handrails  (porch) 
Handrails   (stairworks) 
Harp    sides    (musical    instru- 
ment) 

Hoppers  (fruit  and  vegetable) 
Hubs 

Interior  finish 
Key  racks 
Launch  parts 

Laundry  machines  (steam) 
Lawn  swings 


Leaves  (table) 

Lining  (motor  boats) 

Mandolins 

Mantels 

Match  safes 

Match  strikers 

Mirror  backs 

Moldings   (house) 

Moldings   (piano) 

Newels   (stairwork) 

Organ  cases 

Organ  cases  (exterior  pipe 
organ) 

Organ  keys 

Ornaments   (furniture) 

Panels   (veneered) 

Paper  plugs 

Parlor  cabinets  (exterior) 

Parlor  furniture   (frames) 

Parlor  rockers 

Parquetry  flooring 

Passenger  cars  (interior  fin- 
ish) 

Patterns  (machine  parts) 

Pedestals 

Pen  racks 

Pen  trays 

Piano  benches 

Piano  cases 

Piano  chairs 

Piano  keys 

Piano  players    (exterior) 

Piano  stools 

Picture  mouldings 

Plane  handles 

Plumbers'  woodwork 

Pool  tables 

Pulleys 

Posts   (stairwork) 

Reels   (fence  wire) 

Reels   (insulated  wire) 

Refrigerators 

Risers   (stairwork) 

Road  machinery  parts 


240 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Rocker  frames  (upholstered 
furniture) 

Sash  (window) 

Screen  doors 

Seats   (water  closets) 

Sewing   machine  parts 

Sewing  tables 

Shells  (drum) 

Shoe  pegs 

Shoe  trees 

Show  cases 

Sideboards  (exterior) 

Sills   (road  carts) 

Skewers 

Skis 

Sleds 

Slides  (tables) 

Sofa  frames  (parlor  furni- 
ture) 

Somnols 

Spools 

Stairwork 

Steering  wheels 

Step  ladders 


Steps  (stairwork) 

Switchboards    (telephone) 

Tables 

Tables   (dressing) 

Tables  (library) 

Tabourets 

Tanks  (water  closets) 

Telephones 

Telephones   (accessories) 

Toboggans 

Tool  chests 

Toys 

Trunks 

Umbrella  handles 

Veneer  cores  (piano  cases) 

Wainscoting 

Wall  cases  (store) 

Wardrobes    (exterior) 

Window  screens 

Wind  shields   (automobile) 

Woodenware 

Work  benches 

Zither  bodies 


Among  the  uses  reported  for  paper  or  white 
birch  are: 


Bails  (bucket  and  pail) 

Bobbins 

Boxes 

Brushes 

Camp  stools  (parts) 

Chairs  (porch) 

Chairs  (turned  parts) 

Checkers 

Clothespins 

Crates 

Crutches 

Dowels 

Drawer  sides 

Dry  measures 

Duster  brush  blocks 

Flooring 

Furniture 


Handles   (awl) 
Handles   (cant  hook) 
Handles   (corkscrew) 
Handles  (feather  curlers) 
Handles   (hair  curlers) 
Handles   (hay    rake) 
Handles   (long  handle 

brushes) 

Handles   (paint  brushes) 
Handles   (shovel) 
Handles   (toy    garden    tools) 
Hosiery  boards 
Hoops 

Interior  finish 
Knobs 
Liquor  logs 
Molding    (window) 


Interior  View  of  a  Table  Factory  in  Virginia 


Interior  of  a  Box  Factory 

Finished  sides,  tops,  and  bottoms  are  bundled  ready  to  be  shipped 
to  the  user  who  will  assemble  them 

Plate  30 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Drying   Room   in   a  Vehicle   Factory 
Showing  oak  and  hickory  spokes  and  elm  hubs 


Drying  Room  in  a  Vehicle  Factory 


Showing  oak  and  hickory 
Plate  31 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


rims  for  buggy  wheels; 
elm  hubs 


also   birch  and 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  241 

Novelties  Spool  barrels 

Paint  brushes  Spool  heads 

Paper  plugs  Table  slides 

Piano  stools  Toothpicks 

Quills  Toy  parts   (iron  toys) 

Rungs  (turned  chair)  Toy  wheelbarrows 

Sawhorses  Twisters 

Shoe  pegs  Vehicle  parts 

Skewers  Wash  benches 

Speeders  Wash  boards 

Spindles  (turned  chair)  Wheels   (toy  wagons) 

Spinning  wheels  Wheels  (toy   wheelbarrows) 

Spools 

BUCKEYE 

Buckeye  (Aesculus  octandra)  is  a  species  of 
the  horse-chestnut  family  from  which  about  20 
million  feet  of  lumber  are  annually  manufac- 
tured in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  adjacent  States. 
The  wood  is  very  much  like  basswood  as  regards 
lightness  in  weight,  softness,  and  lack  of  tough- 
ness or  strength.  That  these  qualities  make 
buckeye  useful  for  very  many  of  the  purposes 
for  which  basswood  is  desired,  will  be  seen  from 
the  summary  of  its  factory  uses  given  in 
Table  72. 

TABLE  72 

Factory  Uses  of  Buckeye 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates   47 

Excelsior     19 

Mill  Work 10 

Furniture     6 

Trunks  and  Valises   6 

Frames  and  Molding 3 

Caskets  and  Coffins    3 

Laundry  Appliances 2 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 1 


242  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Signs  and  Supplies 1 

Other  Uses 2 

Total    . . . . 100 

Some  of  the  specific  uses  reported  for  buck- 
eye include  doors,  piano  panels,  interior  finish, 
sample  cases,  candy  and  chocolate  boxes,  and 
wooden  bowls  and  dishes. 

BUTTERNUT 

Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea)  is  in  much  the 
same  class  as  basswood  and  buckeye  in  respect 
to  mechanical  qualities,  but  is  slightly  heavier, 
harder,  stronger,  and  tougher  than  these  woods. 
It  also  has  a  figure  considerably  like  black  wal- 
nut, of  which  it  is  a  close  relative,  but  lacks  the 
rich  color  of  the  more  valuable  wood. 

Butternut  finds  its  largest  usefulness  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  and  fixtures,  and, 
next,  for  boxes  and  crates,  as  is  indicated  in 
Table  73. 

TABLE   73 

Factory  Uses  of  Butternut 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 39 

Boxes  and  Crates 22 

Excelsior    11 

Mill  Work 9 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 6 

Musical  Instruments 4 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 3 

Patterns  and  Flasks 2 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments.  ...      1 
Other  Uses    3 

Total    .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  243 

Specific  articles  in  which  butternut  is  used 
are: 

Altars  Moulding 

Boat  decks  Patterns 

Boat  finish  Piano  cases 

Boat  seats  Piano  molding 

Cabinets  Screen  frames 

Cameras  Show  cases 

Caskets  Store  fixtures 

Cheese  box  heading  Tables 

Church  pews  Threshing  machines 

•Doll  carriages  Toys 

Furniture  Vehicles 
Interior  finish 

CEDAR 

There  are  so  many  woods  popularly  known 
by  the  name  " cedar,"  that  this  name  conveys 
little  idea  of  the  qualities  of  the  timber  referred 
to.  Some  of  these  woods  are  correctly  known 
as  cedar,  while  entirely  different  names  are 
applied  by  botanists  to  the  others.  In  this  dis- 
cussion, it  is  sufficient  to  mention  seven  species 
which  go  by  the  name  of  cedar,  and  which  have 
a  considerable  commercial  usefulness  —  the 
Southern  white  cedar  (Cliamaecyparis  fhyoides) 
of  the  Atlantic  Coast  States;  the  Northern 
white  cedar  or  arbor  vitae  (Thuja  americana),. 
chiefly  important  in  New  England  and  the  Lake 
States;  the  red  or  pencil  cedar  (Juniperus  vir- 
giniana),  which  is  most  abundant  in  Tennessee 
and  Florida;  the  Western  red  cedar  or  giant 
arbor  vitae  (Thuja  plicata)  of  the  Northern  ~ 
Rocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  Northwest;  the 
Port  Or  ford  cedar  (Chamaecyparis  lawsonianaf' 
of  Oregon ;  the  Alaska  or  yellow  cedar  (Chamae- 


244  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

^-' 

cyparis  nootkatensis)  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast 
from  Oregon  to  Alaska;  and  the  incense  cedar 
(Librocedrus  decurrens.)  of  Southern  Oregon 
and  California.  All  of  these  so-called  cedars 
have  in  common  a  certain  lightness  in  weight, 
softness,  evenness  of  grain,  and  resistance  to 
decay,  but  in  varying  degrees. 

Both  the  Northern  and  Southern  white  cedars 
are  among  the  lightest  of  woods  in  weight,  and 
are  soft  and  easily  worked.  They  are  much 
used  for  woodenware  and  in  canoe  and  boat 
building,  and  also  for  shingles,  posts,  and  poles, 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  Northern  white 
cedar  being  used  for  the  latter  purpose.  The 
true  red  or  pencil  cedar  has  always  been  the 
standard  wood  for  lead  pencils,  because  it  is 
very  soft,  with  a  fine,  even  grain  that  whittles 
nicely.  It  is  also  among  the  most  durable  of 
woods  when  exposed  to  decay-producing  influ- 
ences. 

The  Western  red  cedar  is  much  like  the  North- 
ern white  cedar  or  arbor  vitae,  but  is  a  larger 
tree  and  produces  more  red  heartwood.  At  the 
present  time,  Western  red  cedar,  in  addition  to 
supplying  a  considerable  quantity  of  lumber, 
posts,  and  poles,  furnishes  about  two-thirds  of 
all  the  shingles  made  in  the  United  States. 

The  wood  of  the  incense  cedar  is  considerably 
heavier  and  stronger  than  that  of  the  white  or 
red  cedar.  In  fact,  in  this  respect  it  compares 
favorably  with  Southern  yellow  pine.  Incense 
cedar  wood  is  close-grained,  and  has  a  reddish, 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  245 

durable,  heartwood  useful  for  many  purposes. 

Port  Orford  cedar  is  a  wood  which  is  heavy, 
strong,  and  stiff.  It  has  a  good  figure,  and  pol- 
ishes well. 

The  Alaska  or  yellow  cedar  has  perhaps  the 
hardest  wood  of  any  of  the  so-called  cedars.  It 
is  light,  stiff,  and  strong,  has  a  good  figure,  and 
takes  a  good  polish. 

Without  distinction  as  to  species,  the  factory 
uses  of  cedar  in  the  United  States  are  summar- 
ized in  Table  74. 

TABLE   74 

Factory   Uses   of    Cedar 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill    Work    44 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments.  ...  20 

Ship  and  Boat  Building    7 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 6 

Caskets  and  Coffins   6 

Laundry    Appliances    5 

Tanks  and  Silos 4 

Furniture   and   Fixtures    3 

Boxes   and   Crates    2 

Other  Uses    3 

Total    100 

In  Table  74  the  millwork — that  is,  the  manu- 
facture of  sash,  door,  blinds,  interior  finish,  etc. 
— takes  chiefly  the  Western  cedars ;  while  under 
the  heading  of  professional  and  scientific  instru- 
ments is  included  much  of  the  Eastern  red 
cedar  used  in  pencil  making.  Smaller  uses  of 
Eastern  red  cedar  are  for: 

Canes  Chairs 

Caskets  Chests 


246  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Fixtures  Silos 

Furniture  Tanks 

Interior  finish  Umbrella  handles 

Musical    instruments  Vehicles 

Sash  Woodenware 

Siding 

Uses  reported  for  the  Eastern  white  cedars 
are  in  the  manufacture  of : 

Boat  bottoms  Planing  mill  products 

Boat  decking  Roof  tanks 

Canoes  Rowboats 

Cigar  boxes  Shiplap 

Dairymen's  supplies  Siding 

General   millwork  Signal  devices 

Ice   cream    freezers  Silos 

Interior  finish  Tanks 

Oars  Yachts 

Pails 

A  recent  compilation  by  the  Forest  Service 
lists  the  following  uses  for  Western  red  cedar: 

Barrel  bungs  Carving 

Battens  Caskets 

Blinds  Coffins 

Boards  Coffin  boxes 

Boats  Ceiling 

Cabins  Chests 

Canoes  Cigar  boxes 

Ceiling  Closet  linings 

Decking  Columns 

Finish  Conservatories 

Launches  Sash 

Planking  Stands 

Rails  Trays 

Roofs  Cooperage 

Skiffs  Buckets 

Trim  Tubs 

Car  construction  Cores 

Finish  Veneer 

Roofing  Decking 

Siding  Doors 

Trim  Drain  boards 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


247 


Drawing  boards 
Faucets 
Finish 
Fixtures 

Drawers 

Mirror  backs 

Panels 

Shelves 

Show  cases 
Flooring 
Flume  stock 
Framing 
Furniture 

Bottoms 

Cabinets 

Drawer  bottoms 

Frames 

Panels 

Hot  house  trays 
Incubators 
Interior  work 

Ceiling 

Finish 

Trim 
Lath 
Lattice 
Lintels 
Moldings 
Organs  (action) 
Panels 
Patterns 

Foundry 

Machine  shop 
Piano  shanks 
Pickets 

Picture  frames 
Piling 
Poles 


Pontoon  floats 
Porch  columns 

Built-up 

Turned 
Posts 


Hot  house 

Window 
Scroll  work 
Shingles 
Shiplap 
Shop  lumber 
Siding 

Bevel 

Drop 
Silos 
Spigots 
Spindles 
Tanks 

Covers 

Staves 
Tennis  rackets 

Handles 
Tent  poles 
Ties 

Totem  poles 
Trays 

Fruit  dryer 

Hot  house 

Trunk 
Turning 

Balusters 

Novelties 

Squares 

Veneers   (cores) 
Washing   machines 
Window  frames 
Window  sills 


According  to  the  Oregon  reports,  Port  Orford 
cedar  is  used  for  boats  (finish,  frames,  plank- 
ing, skiffs),  columns,  fixtures,  furniture  (cabi- 
nets, moth-proof  drawers,  stools,  tables),  moth- 


248  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

proof  chests,  matches,  sash  and  doors,  and  turn- 
ery. 

Alaska  or  yellow  cedar  is  used  for  boat  cabins, 
interior  finish,  carvings,  patterns,  and  pyrog- 
raphy.  In  addition  to  serving  many  other  pur- 
poses, incense  cedar  is  now  being  used  for  pencil 
making,  because  of  the  shortness  of  the  supply 
of  Southern  red  cedar. 

CHEERY 

The  wild  black  cherry  (Prunus  serotina)  is 
somewhat  lighter  in  weight  and  a  little  softer 
than  beech  and  birch;  but  it  is  nevertheless  a 
dense,  strong,  hardwood  of  excellent  wearing 
qualities,  and  with  a  color  and  figure  which  make 
it  highly  prized  in  the  manufacture  of  excep- 
tionally fine  furniture  and  interior  finish.  The 
supply  is  not  large,  and  Table  75  indicates  that 

TABLE   75 

Factory  Uses  of  Cherry 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 24 

Printing    Material    17 

Car  Construction    16 

Mill   Work    14 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments.  ...  6 

Handles     5 

Brushes    ' 4 

Musical  Instruments    3 

Clocks 3 

Ship  and  Boat  Building    2 

Boxes  and  Crates 1 

Patterns    1 

Other  Uses    4 

Total    .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


249 


nearly  all  the  cherry  is  used  for  high-grade 
work. 

Specific  uses  reported  for  cherry  are  for: 


Baskets 

Beds 

Boat  finish 

Bookcases 

Brick  molds 

Brushes 

Bushel   crates 

Butter   dishes 

Cabinets 

Camera  boxes 

Card   trays 

Cars   (finish) 

Casing 

Caskets 

Chairs    (posts,    rounds) 

Clock  cases 

Coffins 

Collar  trays 

Counters 

Desks 

Dooii 

Dowels 

Dressers 

Flasks 

Flooring 

Electrotype  blocks 

Engraving  blocks 

Glove  stretchers 

Handles   (duster  brush) 

Handles  (saw) 

Interior  finish 

Last  blocks 

Level   blocks 

Level  sticks 

Library  furniture 


Machine  boxes 

Musical  instruments 

Office  fixtures 

Panels 

Partitions 

Parquetry 

Passenger  cars 

Patterns 

Piano  actions 

Piano  cases 

Piano  players 

Piano  rails 

Picture   moldings 

Pilot  wheels 

Pipe  organ    (cases,   actions) 

Plumbers'  woodwork 

Plane  handles 

Road  machines  (cabs,  boxes) 

Sash 

School  furniture 

Settees 

Shoe  lasts 

Siding 

Spindle  stock 

Spoons 

Store  fixtures 

Swings 

Switchboards 

Tables 

Table  drawers 

Table  legs 

Tobacco  pipes 

Trays   (jewelry) 

Trim 

Woodenware 


CHESTNUT 

The  wood  of  chestnut  (Castanea  dentata)  is 
rather  light,   soft,   and   durable.    It  is  easily 


250  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

worked,  and  appears  well  in  furniture  and  fix- 
tures, in  many  cases  rather  closely  resembling 
white  ash.  The  larger  factory  uses  reported 
for  chestnut  are  indicated  in  Table  76. 

TABLE  76 

Factory  Uses  of  Chestnut 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 28 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 19 

Caskets  and  Coffins   16 

Musical  Instruments    13 

Boxes  and  Crates 12 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 7 

Other  Uses   5 

Total    100 

Articles  in  which  chestnut  is  used  are : 

Boxes   (cheese)  Furniture   (kitchen) 

Boxes   (glass  bottles)  Ice  chests 

Boxes   (handle)  Interior  finish  (house) 

Boxes    (meat)  Library  tables 

Brushes  Mantels 

Cabbage  crates  Molding 

Casing  Outer  cases  (caskets) 

Casket  moulding  Panel  work   (house) 

Casket  shells  Picture  frames 

Casket  tops  Pool  table  sides 

Church  pews  Refrigerators 

Cores  (veneer)  Ribs   (poultry  coops) 

Crating  Sash 

Doors  Siding 

Fence  pickets  Stair  balusters 

Fence  stubs  Stair  rails 

Flooring  Stair  rises 

Furniture   (backs)  Store  and  office  partitions 

Furniture  frames   (case  Veneer  backing 

goods)  Wardrobes 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  251 

COTTONWOOD 

The  cottonwoods  or  true  poplars  yield  light, 
soft,  even-grained,  easily  worked  woods,  more 
closely  resembling  basswood  than  any  other 
species.  Cottonwopd,  however,  is  tougher  and 
stiffer  than  basswood,  and,  because  of  its  inter- 
woven fibers,  resists  wear  extremely  well  for 
such  a  soft  wood.  The  bulk  of  the  cottonwood 
lumber  is  manufactured  from  the  common  East- 
ern cottonwood  (Populus  deltoides),  which  is 
most  abundant  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley. 
In  Oregon  and  Washington,  the  black  cotton- 
Wood  (Populus  trichocarpa)  yields  a  lumber 
which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  of 
the  Eastern  species. 

Because  of  its  lightness  and  strength,  cotton- 
wood  is  a  favorite  material  with  box  makers,  as 
will  be  seen  from  Table  77. 

TABLE  77 
Factory  Uses  of  Cottonwood 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes   and   Crates    56 

Excelsior     14 

Vehicles    9 

Mill  Work 6 

Agricultural  Implements 4 

Woodenware   and  Novelties    4 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 2 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 1 

Other  Uses    4 

Total    100 

Particular  uses  reported  for  Eastern  cotton- 
wood  are  for: 


252 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Agricultural   implements 
Backs  (washboards) 
Baskets 
Berry  boxes 
Bevel  siding 

Bookcases  (inside  work) 
Boxboards    (heavy  vehicles) 
Boxes 

Boxes    (manure  spreaders) 
Box  shooks 
Brooders    (poultry) 
Buggy  backs 

Car  construction    (rafters) 
Car  repairing  parts 
Carts 

China   closets 
Clothboards 
Coffins 
Commodes 
Corn  binder  parts 
Corn   shellers 
Cornice 

Cultivator  parts 
Cupboards  (kitchen) 
Crating 

Dowels   (chair) 
Drawers 

Drill  boxes  (farm  imple- 
ments) 

Drills   (farm  implements) 
Drop  siding 
Egg  cases 
Ensilage  cutters 
Envelope  cutters 
Eveners    (harrow) 
Fixtures    (bar) 
Fixtures  (store  and  office) 
Fodder  shredders 


Frames    (canopy) 

Furniture   (inside  work) 

Incubators 

Interior   trimmings 

Ironing-boards 

Kitchen   cabinets 

Ladders 

Manure  spreaders  (beds) 

Millwork 

Mortar   boards 

Music  cabinets   (inside  work) 

Packages  (fruit  and  vege- 
table) 

Panels   (light  vehicle  bodies) 

Panels    (spring  wagon 
bodies) 

Piano  cases  (veneer  cases) 

Refrigerators 

Saddle  trees 

Sample  cases 

Seeders,    boxes    (farm   imple- 
ments ) 

Self-feeders     (threshing    ma- 
chines) 

Separator   sides    (threshers) 

Shelving 

Shipping   cases    (butter) 

Siding  (washboards) 

Stacker  parts  (farm  ma- 
chinery) 

Tables 

Trunks 

Vehicle  bodies 

Vehicle  seat  backs 

Vending  machines 

Wagon  beds 

Wheelbarrows 

Woodenware 


The  Oregon  or  black  cottonwood  is  used  in 
Oregon  and  Washington  for: 

Baskets,  boxes,  candy  barrels,  caskets,  cores  of  veneered 
products,  excelsior,  farm  machinery,  furniture  (chair  seats, 
couch  heads,  drawer  bottoms,  shelving),  fixtures  (drawer  bot- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  253 

toms,  shelving),  pack  saddles,  pulleys,  trunks,  veneer,  wood- 
enware. 

CUCUMBER 

The  tree  commonly  known  as  cucumber  is  one 
of  the  magnolias  (Magnolia  acuminata).  The 
wood  is  soft,  light,  easily  worked,  durable,  and 
very  similar  to  yellow  poplar,  with  which  lum- 
ber much  of  it  is  marketed. 

So  far  as  separate  uses  are  reported  for 
cucumber,  they  are  as  indicated  in  Table  78. 

TABLE  78 

Factory  Uses  of  Cucumber 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill    Work    50 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 23 

Boxes  and  Crates 18 

Excelsior     6 

Other  Uses    3 

Total    100 

Cucumber  enters  into  the  manufacture  of: 

Agricultural  implements  Hay  racks 

Cabinets  Molding 

Casing  Pails 

Casket  trim  Partition 

Ceiling  Porch  columns 

Cheese  boxes  (heads)  Siding 

Doors  Stairs 

Flooring  Trim 

Frames  Tubs 
Furniture 

CYPRESS 

Cypress  (Taxodium  distichum)  is  one  of  the 
stronger  and  heavier  softwoods,  which,  with  the 


254  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

exception  of  greater  weight,  perhaps  resembles 
redwood  more  closely  than  it  does  any  other 
conifer.  Cypress  is  one  of  the  more  durable 
woods;  and  some  remarkable  records  of  the 
longevity  of  cypress  lumber  and  shingles  are 
claimed  by  the  manufacturers  of  this  wood. 
Cypress  works  well,  has  a  good  figure,  and  a 
rich  color  in  the  red  variety.  The  largest  use- 
fulness of  cypress  is  in  mill  work,  so  far  as  fac- 
tory purposes  are  concerned,  as  will  be  seen 
from  Table  79. 

TABLE  79 

Factory  Uses  of  Cypress 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 76 

Boxes  and  Crates 6 

Tanks  and   Silos    5 

Caskets  and  Coffins   3 

Machine  Construction    2 

Laundry    Appliances    2 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 1 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 1 

Other  Uses   4 

Total    100 

Because  of  its  durability,  cypress  is  also  much 
used  for  siding,  shingles,  railroad  ties,  and  other 
purposes  where  it  is  exposed  to  decay-produc- 
ing influences — among  these  latter  uses  being 
greenhouse  construction. 

The  wide  range  of  usefulness  of  cypress  is 
indicated  by  the  following  list  of  articles  into 
the  manufacture  of  which  this  wood  enters : 

Agricultural   Implements  Balusters   (porch) 

Altars  Baseboards 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


Beehives 

Blinds 

Boat  parts 

Boat  siding 

Bottoms   (oil   tanks) 

Bottoms   (water  tanks) 

Boxes 

Butter  tubs 

Cabinets  (ice  cream) 

Cabinet  work 

Candy  pails 

Carvings 

Casing   (house) 

Casing   (incubators) 

Caskets 

Churns 

Cisterns 

Cold  frames   (hotbeds) 

Colonnades 

Columns   (porches) 

Conservatories 

Conveyors 

Cornice 

Covers    (laundry   machines) 

Crating 

Decking 

Discs  (laundry  machines) 

Door  frames 

Doors 

Drawers   (bottoms) 

Drawers    (ends) 

Drawer  sides  (furniture) 

Dropboards  (poultry) 

Dust  arrester  parts 

Electric  cars   (interior  work) 

Feed  mills 

Finish   (boats) 

Fixtures  (bank) 

Fixtures    (soda  fountains) 

Fixtures   (store  and  office) 

Flasks 

Flour  mills   (machine  parts) 

Frames   (vapor  bath  tubs) 

Frames   (window  tents) 


Grain  elevators 

Greenhouses 

Hay  baler  parts 

Hay  loader  parts 

Hoppers   (poultry  houses) 

Ice  cream  freezers 

Incubator  parts 

Interior  finish 

Knifeboards  (mowers) 

Launch  parts 

Lodge  furniture 

Mantels 

Musical  instruments 

Nests   (poultry  houses) 

Pails 

Panels   (delivery  wagons) 

Panels   (doors) 

Panels   (light  vehicle  bodies) 

Patterns 

Picture  moldings 

Porch  work 

Pumps 

Refrigerators 

Road  rollers 

Roof  slats  (light  vehicle  beds) 

Sash   (storm) 

Screen  doors 

Siding 

Signal  devices 

Silos 

Spindles 

Spraying  apparatus 

Stairwork 

Starchers   (laundry) 

Staves  (oil  tanks) 

Staves   (water  tanks) 

Stepping 

Store  fronts 

Tanks 

Tanks  (water  closets) 

Towers    (tanks) 

Trunks 

Tubs    (laundry) 

Vats 


256  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Vats  (vinegar)  Well  machinery 

Washers  (hydraulic)  Well  tubing 

Washing  machines  (hand)  Window  frames 

Water  closets  (unexposed  Window  screens 

parts)  Windmills 

Water   pipes  Wringers   (laundry) 

DOGWOOD 

Dogwood  (Cornus  florida)  is  very  hard,  heavy, 
close-grained,  and  wear-resistant,  and  is  used 
in  places  where  hard  service  would  quickly 
destroy  softer  woods.  As  brought  out  else- 
where, the  limited  supply  of  dogwood  is  nearly 
all  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  shuttles  for 
the  great  cotton  mills  of  the  East. 

Dogwood  is  also  used  to  some  extent  for  small 
handles,  mauls,  spindles,  wedges,  and  mine  rol- 
lers. 

DOUGLAS  FIE 

Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  is  an 
interesting  timber  because  there  is  more  of  it 
than  any  other  species  in  the  United  States,  the 
greater  proportion  being  in  the  northern  Rocky 
Mountain  and  Pacific  States.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  redwood,  Douglas  fir  trees  are  larger 
than  any  other  in  our  forests;  and  they  are 
capable  of  yielding  timbers  of  practically  any 
length  and  size  desired. 

The  wood  of  Douglas  fir  is  of  medium  weight, 
strength,  stiffness,  and  toughness  among  the 
softwoods.  It  is  used  for  the  same  general  pur- 
poses as  Southern  yellow  pine;  and  specifica- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  257 

tions  for  structural  timbers  often  carry  the  two 
woods  on  the  same  basis. 

More  than  half  of  the  total  output  of  Douglas 
fir  lumber  goes  into  general  building  operations 
and  heavy  construction.  The  more  important 
factory  uses  reported  are  indicated  in  Table  80. 

TABLE  80 

Factory  Uses  of  Douglas  Fir 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 87 

Tanks  and  Silos 4 

Car   Construction    4 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 2 

Pumps  and  Wood  Pipe 1 

Other  Uses 2 

Total    100 

More  specifically  Douglas  fir  is  used  for: 

Boats  (beams,  cabins,  decking,  finish,  frames,  keelsons, 
knees,  masts,  planking,  spars,  stems),  boxes,  bridge  timbers, 
broom  handles,  car  construction,  cement  pipe  jackets,  columns, 
crates,  crossarms,  decoy  ducks,  dump  cars,  elevator  equipment, 
and  mission  furniture,  mirrors,  spring  frames,  tables),  fencing, 
fixtures  (backs,  counters,  facings,  shelves),  furniture  (book 
cases,  cabinets,  chairs,  cots,  couch  frames,  drawers,  kitchen 
foundry  flasks,  gutters,  hop  baskets,  interior  work  (casing, 
ceiling,  finish,  flooring,  moulding,  stair  work,  veneered  doors, 
wainscoting),  ladders,  musical  instruments,  panels,  patterns, 
paving  blocks,  pulleys,  refrigerators,  rug  poles,  saddles,  sash 
and  doors,  silo  and  tank  stock,  slack  and  tight  cooperage,  sur- 
veyors' stakes,  turnery,  veneer,  vehicles,  washing  machines, 
windmill  parts,  wood  stave  pipe. 

ELM 

There  are  several  species  of  elm  in  the  United 
States,  by  far  the  most  abundant  being  the  com- 
mon or  white  elm  (Ulmus  americana).  Other 


258  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

elms  are  rock  or  cork  elm  (Ulmus  racemosa); 
slippery  or  red  elm  (Ulmus  pubescens);  cedar 
elm  (Ulmus  crassifolia)  of  the  South;  and  wing 
elm  (Ulmus  alata),  which  is  most  common  in 
Texas. 

White  elm  is  among  the  lighter  of  the  hard- 
woods in  weight,  is  not  so  strong  as  many  of 
them,  and  is  not  very  hard.  It  is,  however,  a 
tough,  fibrous  wood  of  varied  usefulness.  Bock 
elm  is  heavy,  hard,  tough,  and  strong ;  and  ranks 
next  to  hickory  for  many  purposes,  especially 
in  the  line  of  vehicle  manufacture.  Slippery 
elm  is  somewhat  darker  in  color  than  white  or 
rock  elm,  and  is  about  midway  between  these 
two  woods  in  mechanical  properties.  Wing  and 
cedar  elm  are  used  for  the  same  general  pur- 
poses as  white  elm. 

TABLE  81 

Factory  Uses  of  Elm 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 29 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 19 

Vehicles 14 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 7 

Musical  Instruments 7 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 6 

Agricultural  Implements 3 

Trunks  and  Valises 3 

Mill   Work    3 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 1 

Handles    1 

Other  Uses   7 

Total    100 

The   statistical   reports    do   not    distinguish 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


259 


between  the  various  elms.    The  combined  uses 
are  summarized  in  Table  81. 
Uses  reported  for  white  elm  are: 


Automobile  bodies 

Automobile  doors 

Bails 

Banana  hampers 

Baskets 

Basket  handles 

Bicycle  rims 

Billiard  tables 

Bobsleds 

Boxes 

Bushel  measures 

Cant-hook  handles 

Canoe-boat  bottom  boards 

Chairs 

Chair  bottoms 

Cheesebox  rims 

Communion  tables 

Crating 

Cultivators 

Doubletrees 

Drawstops 

Eveners 

Fish  backs 

Flooring 

Folding  machines 

Grapples 

Hand  sleds 

Hoops  (coiled) 

Hose  menders 

Hubs 

Ice  chests 

Interior  finish 

Kitchen  cabinets 

Ladders 


Mission  furniture 

Pails 

Peavy  handles 

Pews 

Pianos 

Pikepoles 

Potato  crates 

Power-pump  skids 

Press  racks 

Printers'  cabinets 

Pulpits 

Refrigerators 

Riddle  rims 

Roll-paper  cutters 

Root  cutters 

Seed  cabinets 

Shipping  baskets 

Showcases 

Sieve  rims 

Singletrees 

Sleigh  runners 

Spraying  machines 

Stone  boats 

Store  fixtures 

Tanner  liquor  logs  (pipe) 

Toys 

Trunks 

Tubs 

Wall  cases 

Washboards 

Washing-machine  parts 

Waste  baskets 

Wheelbarrows 

Woven  boxes 


Rock  elm  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of: 


Agricultural   implements  Bentwood 

Automobile  bodies  and  seats        Boxes 
Bails  Crating 


260  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Doubletrees    (plow    and    bar-  Ladders 

rows)  Machine  handles 

Dowels  Platforms 

Eveners   (plow  and  harrow)  Posts   (seat) 

Feed  cutters  Rims    (trucks) 

Handles  Rockers  (chairs) 

Hay  loader  parts  Singletrees 

Hounds  (vehicles)  Sleigh  runners  and  bodies 

Hoppers  Stirrups 

Horizontal  bars  Trunks 

Hubs    (light  vehicle   wheels)  Trunk  slats 

Interior  finish  Wheelbarrows 


EUCALYPTUS 

The  eucalyptus  family  is  a  native  of  Australia. 
A  number  of  species  were  early  introduced  into- 
California,  and  more  recently  considerable  plan- 
tations of  eucalyptus  have  been  established  in 
that  State.  The  one  commonly  planted  is  the 
blue  gum  (Eucalyptus  globulus),  although  the 
wood  of  this  species  is  said  to  have  fewer  desir- 
able qualities  than  that  of  some  other  less  widely 
planted  eucalyptus. 

Eucalyptus  wood  is  generally  very  hard, 
heavy,  tough,  and  strong,  even  surpassing  hick- 
ory in  some  respects.  However,  it  is  much  more 
difficult  to  season  without  serious  warping  and 
checking  than  is  any  other  wood  used  in  this 
country.  Much  of  this  difficulty  is  apparently 
due  to  the  fact  that  practically  all  the  eucalyp- 
tus lumber  so  far  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  is  necessarily  produced  from  young  trees 
of  extremely  rapid  growth.  The  wood  of  the 
large,  mature,  native  Australian  eucalyptus  is 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  261 

said  to  work  much  better  than  that  from  the 
young  planted  trees  in  this  country. 

Unfortunately,  unscrupulous  promoters  whose 
object  has  been  to  sell  stock  in  eucalyptus  com- 
panies have  disseminated  a  vast  amount  of  mis- 
leading information  about  the  properties  of  the 
wood  and  the  fabulous  returns  to  be  expected 
from  eucalyptus  plantations.  Only  a  small 
amount  of  eucalyptus  lumber  is  manufactured, 
and  the  uses  for  it  are  chiefly  as  shown  in 
Table  82. 

TABLE  82 

Factory  Uses  of  Eucalyptus 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 80 

Vehicles    12 

Agricultural  Implements 3 

Furniture    2 

Mill    Work    1 

Machine  Construction    1 

Other  Uses    1 

Total    100 

FIB 

Under  this  heading  are  grouped  the  true  firs 
of  the  botanical  genus  Abies.  Douglas  fir,  which 
is  known  by  a  wide  variety  of  names,  is  a  dis- 
tinct genus,  and  not  a  fir  at  all;  neither  does  it 
have  much  in  common  with  the  true  firs  since 
it  is  much  heavier  and  stronger  than  these 
woods. 

Of  the  various  true  firs,  the  most  important 


262  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  83 

Factory  Uses  of  Fir 
RED  FIR 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 72 

Mill  Work 28 

Total    100 

ALPINE  FIR 

Boxes  and  Crates 62 

Mill  Work 33 

Excelsior    3 

Other  Uses 2 

Total    100 

BALSAM  FIR 

Boxes  and  Crates 76 

Mill  Work 20 

Car  Construction   1 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 1 

Woodenware  and  Novelties    1 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    100 

WHITE  FIR 

Mill   Work    72 

Boxes  and  Crates 27 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    100 

are  the  balsam  fir  (Abies  balsamifera)  of  the 
Northern  States;  the  white  fir  (Abies  concolor) 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  Coast  region ; 
the  Alpine  fir  (Abies  lasiocarpa),  which  grows 
in  high  altitudes  in  the  Western  mountains ;  the 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  263 

noble  fir  (Abies  nobilis),  which  is  most  abundant 
in  Oregon;  and  the  red  fir  (Abies  magnified)  of 
California.  The  balsam  fir  of  the  East,  and  the 
Alpine  fir  of  the  West,  are  small  trees  of  very 
similar  character.  The  white,  noble,  and  red 
firs  are  among  the  large  trees  of  the  regions  in 
which  they  are  found.  The  wood  of  all  the  firs 
is  very  light  in  weight,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle, 
and  even-grained,  with  no  great  variations  in 
texture.  The  firs  are  not  largely  sawed  at  pres- 
ent. Fir  lumber  is  chiefly  used  for  boxes  and 
crates,  for  which  purpose  the  light  weight  and 
softness  especially  fits  these  woods.  The  firs 
also  furnish  much  material  for  wood  pulp. 

So  far  as  reported,  the  factory  uses  of  the  firs 
are  summarized  in  Table  83. 

The  noble  fir  is  used  for  the  same  general  pur- 
poses as  are  the  other  true  firs. 

Uses  reported  for  balsam  fir  include : 

Boxes  Frames   (door) 

Boxes   (herring)  Frames   (window) 

Cases  Ironing-table  tops 

Cases   (packing)  Molding 

Cases   (sardines)  Refrigerators 

Ceiling  Sash 

Clapboards  Sheathing 

Cloth  boards  Shooks 

Crates  Siding  j*       w' 

Dairy  supplies  Suit-case  frames     « 

Flooring  Trim 

BLACK  GUM 

Black  gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica),  although  gener- 
ally called  "gum,"  is  in  no  way  related  botanic- 


264  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

ally  to  red  gum.  It  is  a  member  of  the  same 
genus  as  tupelo,  and  much  of  it  is  included  in 
the  statistics  of  that  wood. 

Black  gum  is  somewhat  heavier  than  red  gum. 
The  wood  is  moderately  strong  and  stiff,  tough, 
and  very  difficult  to  split — properties  which  are 
often  desirable.  Separate  uses  reported  for 
black  gum  are  in  the  manufacture  of: 

Baskets  Mauls 

Berry  cups  Mine  rollers 

Boxes  Paving  blocks 

Conduits  Ox  yokes 

Chucks  Reshippers  (bottle  crates) 

Hoppers  Rollers  (boats) 

Hubs  Rug  pr.les 

Keels  Table  legs 

Lard  dishes  Veneer  barrels 

RED  GUM 

Bed  gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua)  is  one  of 
the  softer  hardwoods  of  medium  weight  and 
strength.  It  has  a  good  figure  and  a  reddish 
heartwood  that  make  it  useful  for  many  pur- 
poses. Red  gum  works  easily  and  is  fairly 
tough ;  so  the  lower  grades  are  in  large  demand 
for  boxes  and  crates;  while  the  figured  wood, 
properly  stained,  gives  perhaps  the  closest  dup- 
lication of  Circassian  walnut  obtainable  with  any 
timber.  Stained  differently,  red  gum  is  also 
much  used  to  give  mahogany  effects. 

In  addition  to  being  the  wood  most  largely 
used  for  slack  barrel  staves  and  heading,  the 
statistical  reports  give  the  information  embodied 
in  Table  84,  upon  the  other  factory  uses  of  red 
gum. 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  265 

TABLE  84 

Factory  Uses   of  Red  Gum 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 50 

Mill    Work    15 

Furniture  and  Fixtures    15 

Vehicles 3 

Pulleys  and  Conveyors 2 

Sewing  Machines    2 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 2 

Agricultural  Implements 1 

Musical   Instruments    1 

Woodenware,   Novelties,   etc 1 

Picture  Frames  and  Moldings 1 

Other  Uses   7 

Total 100 

Red  gum  and  sap  gum  (the  sapwood  of  red 
gum)  enter  to  some  extent  into  the  manufacture 
of  the  following  articles: 

Alfalfa  grinder  parts  Chair   frames    (upholstered 
Ballot  boxes  furniture) 

Barrels   (veneer)  Chairs 

Baskets   (fruit)  Chairs   (folding) 

Baskets    (vegetable)  Chairs   (kitchen) 

Berry  cups  Chairs,  official    (lodge  fur- 
Bookcases    (exterior  work)  niture) 

Bottom  boards   (piano)  Chairs   (parlor) 

Bottoms   (heavy  vehicle  Cheese  boxes 

seats)  China  closets  (extension) 

Boxboards    (dump   carts)  Cigar  boxes 

Boxes  Cigar  wheels   (wheel-of- 
Boxes  (delivery   wagons)  chance) 

Boxes   (veneer)  Coffee  drums 

Boxes   (wire  bound)  Columns    (porch) 

Box  shocks  Commodes 

Brush  blocks  Consoles 

Cabinets  Cooperage  stock   (slack) 

Carvings  Cooperage  stock   (tight) 

Caskets  Corn  graders 

Casing  Cradles 
Cattle  guards   (railway  cars)      Crates    (fruit  and  vegetable) 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Crating 

Cultivator  handles 

Cupboards   (backing) 

Cupboards   (kitchen) 

Curtain  poles 

Desks   (house) 

Desks   (office) 

Dining  tables 

Drawer  bottoms 

Dressers  (exterior) 

Egg  cases 

Elevator  cars 

Eraser   blocks    (blackboard) 

Fanning  mills 

Faucets 

Fixtures   (bank) 

Fixtures   (soda   fountains) 

Fixtures   (store  and  office) 

Flour  mills   (machinery 

parts) 

Folding  beds 
Frames   (couches) 
Frames   (davenports) 
Frames   (lounges) 
Furniture   (exposed) 
Furniture   (interior  work) 
Game  traps 
Grain  weighers 
Guitar  bodies 
Handles 

Handrails  (stairwork) 
Hay-baler  parts 
Hobby  horses 
Interior  finish 
Ironing  boards 
Kitchen  cabinets 
Kitchen  cabinets  (backing) 
Lawn  swings 
Legs    (incubator) 
Library  cases 
Lining  (inside  coat  boxes) 
Litter  carrier  parts 
Manure  spreaders 
Mop  handles 
Moldings  (piano) 


Music  cabinets  (exterior) 

Neck  yokes   (cultivator) 

Ornaments  (furniture) 

Packages   (vegetable) 

Panels   (light  vehicle  bodies) 

Panels    (veneered) 

Parlor  cabinets  (inside  work) 

Pedestals 

Pens 

Piano  benches 

Picture  moldings 

Posts   (stairworks) 

Reed  organs    (interior  parts) 

Reed  organs  (exterior) 

Refrigerators 

Reshippers    (boxes) 

Rims  (guitars) 

Runners  (sleighs  and  sleds) 

Saddletrees 

Sandboards  (heavy  vehicles) 

Scale  parts  (platform  scale) 

Screen  doors 

Seats  (water  closets) 

Seed-cleaner  parts 

Self-feeders  (threshing 
machines) 

Sewing  machine  parts 

Sideboards   (built  in) 

Sideboards   (exterior   work) 

Sideboards   (interior  work) 

Signs  (advertising) 

Singletrees  (cultivators) 

Small  gun  stocks 

Sofa  frames  (upholstered  fur- 
niture) 

Spigots 

Stepping  (stairwork) 

Tables 

Tables  (extension) 

Tables  (kitchen) 

Tables  (library) 

Tabourets 

Tanks  (water  closets) 

Thresher  parts 

Tight  cooperage  stock 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  267 

Trimmings  (piano)  Wardrobes  (exterior  work) 

Trunks  Wardrobes  (interior  work) 

Type  cabinets  Washboards  (laundry) 

Vane  slats   (windmill)  Washing  machine  parts 

Vehicle  bottoms  Weather  strippings 

Vending  machines  Wheel  slats   (windmill) 
Vending  machines  (matches)         Window  screens 

Veneer  cores  Woodenware 
Veneer  doors 

HACKBERRY 

Hackberry  (Celtis  occidentalis),  although  not 
an  abundant  forest  tree,  has  a  wide  range ;  and 
small  quantities  are  manufactured  into  lumber 
and  also  into  cooperage.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
moderately  hard,  strong,  and  tough.  In  prop- 
erties it  is  most  like  white  elm,  while  in  appear- 
ance the  lumber  resembles  ash. 

Statistical  reports  do  not  distinguish  between 
the  ordinary  hackberry  and  the  Southern  form 
or  sugarberry  (Celtis  mississippiensis). 

TABLE  85 
Factory  Uses  of  Hackberry 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 39 

Boxes  and  Crates 28 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 13 

Vehicles   9 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 7 

Saddles  and  Hames 4 

Total 100 

Specific  uses  reported  for  hackberry  include : 

Buggy  bodies,  cart  trees,  farm  implements,  handles,  furni- 
ture, hoe  handles,  interior  finish,  kegs,  rakes,  saddle  trees, 
stair  rails,  steps,  table  legs  and  tops,  tubs,  wagon  parts. 


268  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

The  Louisiana  factories  use  sugarberry  for: 

Car  finish,  furniture,  railing,  slack  cooperage,  stair  steps, 
table  frames,  tool  handles,  and  vehicle  bodies. 


HEMLOCK 

Commercially,  there  are  two  important  spe- 
cies of  hemlock — the  Eastern  hemlock  (Tsuga 
canadensis),  which  is  most  abundant  in  the  Lake 
States,  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
and  New  England;  and  Western  hemlock 
(Tsuga  heterophylla) ,  the  largest  stands  of 
which  are  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

The  Eastern  hemlock  is  among  the  lighter 
woods  in  weight,  fairly  stiff  and  strong,  and 
tougher  than  most  softwoods.  The  Western 
hemlock  is  heavier,  stronger,  and  stiffer  than  the 
Eastern,  and,  in  mechanical  properties,  rather 
closely  approaches  Douglas  fir.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  hemlock  lumber  goes  directly 
from  the  sawmill  into  general  building  opera- 
tions. 

Without    distinction    between    species,    the 

TABLE  86 

Factory  Uses  of  Hemlock 
Purpose  Per  cent 

Mill  Work 62 

Boxes  and  Crates 29 

Car   Construction    2 

Furniture    I    ' 

Trunks  and  Valises 1 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 1 

Other  Uses   4 

Total..  100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  269 

reports  indicate  the  factory  uses  of  hemlock  as 
given  in  Table  86. 

More  specifically,  Eastern  hemlock  enters  into 
the  manufacture  of  the  following  articles: 

Bakers'  machinery  Refrigerators 

Beamboxes    (weighing  Sash 

machines)  Seed  boxes   (machines) 

Boat  parts  Shop  patterns  (boats) 

Boxes  Siding 

Car  decking  Signs 

Car  doors  Silos 

Crating  Tobacco  cases 

Flasks  Trunks 

Flooring  Tubs 

Ice  boxes  Vehicles 

Interior  finish.  Washboards 

Pails  Well  machine  parts 

Piano  boxes  Window  frames 

Portable  farm  forges 

According  to  the  Oregon  and  Washington 
reports,  Western  hemlock  is  used  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  for: 

Boat  finish,  boxes,  caskets,  cooperage,  crates,  fixtures 
(drawers,  shelves),  furniture  (backing,  couches,  kitchen  table 
tops),  interior  work  (casing,  ceiling,  finish,  flooring,  moulding, 
wainscoting),  pulp,  sash  and  doors,  screens  and  veneer. 

HICKORY 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  hickory ;  but 
those  of  greatest  commercial  importance  are 
five,  as  follows:  Shellbark  (Hicoria  laciniosa), 
shagbark  (Hicoria  ovata),  mockernut  (Hicoria 
alba),  bitternut  (Hicoria  minima),  and  pignut 
(Hicoria  glabra).  The  pecan  (Hicoria  pecan) 
is  also  a  hickory,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for 
the  same  purposes  as  the  other  species. 


270  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

The  hickories,  with  the  exception  of  black 
locust  and  osage  orange,  are  the  heaviest,  strong- 
est, and  toughest  of  our  native  woods.  It  is  the 
remarkable  toughness  of  hickory,  and  its  ability 
to  withstand  shocks,  that  make  it  the  wood  above 
all  others  for  vehicle  work. 

All  the  hickories  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  vehicles,  handles,  and  other  articles  where 
strength  and  toughness  are  the  main  considera- 
tion; but  pignut  perhaps  possesses  these  prop- 
erties in  greater  degree  than  any  of  the  other 
species. 

The  factory  uses  of  hickory  are  indicated  in 
Table  87. 

TABLE  87 

Factory  Uses  of  Hickory 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Vehicles 61 

Handles 31 

Agricultural  Implements 3 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 1 

Other  Uses 4 

Total 100 

A  great  deal  of  hickory,  instead  of  being  man- 
ufactured into  lumber,  goes  in  bolt  form  directly 
to  the  factory  in  which  it  is  to  be  fashioned  into 
some  useful  article.  According  to  the  reports, 
hickory  enters  more  or  less  into  the  construc- 
tion of: 

Agricultural  implements  Baseball  bats 

Axles  (light  vehicles)  Binder  parts 

Baskets  Board  rules 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


271 


Bottoms  (wagon  boxes) 

Brake  bars 

Cabinet  work 

Calking   hammers 

Canes 

Car  repairing 

Car  construction 

Carvings 

Chairs 

Corn  binder  parts 

Crossbars  (light  vehicles) 

Crutches 

Cultivator  handles 

Doubletrees 

Dowels 

Eveners   (farm  implements) 

Felloes 

Freight  cars 

Gear  woods  (light  vehicles) 

Golf  sticks  (handles) 

Hammer  handles 

Handles 

Handles  (broom) 

Handles  (edge  tools) 

Hay  baler  parts 

Hay  loader  parts 

Header  parts 

Hounds  (heavy  vehicles) 

Ladders 

Ladder  rungs 

Log  rules 

Machinery  handles 

Mallets 

Manure  spreader  parts 

Maul  handles 

Molds  (brick) 

Neck  yokes  (implement) 

Neck  yokes  (plows) 


Neck  yokes  (vehicles) 

Patterns 

Pike  poles 

Pins 

Picture  molding 

Picker  sticks 

Pick  handles 

Pitmans  (farm  implements) 

Plow  beams 

Plow  handles 

Poles   (light  vehicle) 

Rake  teeth 

Refrigerators 

Revolving  rakes 

Rims  (automobile  wheels) 

Rims  (vehicle  wheels) 

Road-scrapers 

Shafts  (vehicle) 

Singletrees 

Sledge  handles 

Small  tool  handles 

Spokes  (automobile) 

Spokes  (light  and  heavy 

vehicles) 

Spring  bars  (light  vehicles) 
Sucker  rods 
Threshing  machines 
Tongues  (light  vehicles) 
Tongues  (wagon) 
Tongues  (wheel  scrapers) 
Trapeze  (gymnasium) 
Trucks 
Trunk  slats 
Turnings 
Wagon  stock 
Wagon  jacks 
Whiffletrees 
Windmill  rods 


HOLLY 

Holly  (Ilex  opaca)  is  a  tough,  close-grained 
wood  of  ivory-like  appearance,  which  makes  it 
especially  valuable  for  inlay  work  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  many  small  articles.  Since 


272  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES  ' 

holly  trees  are  neither  large  nor  abundant,  only 
small  quantities  of  this  wood  are  available.  The 
factory  uses  reported  are  indicated  in  Table  88. 

TABLE  88 

Factory  Uses  of  Holly 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 69 

Brushes    24 

Musical  Instruments 4 

Other  Uses 3 

Total 100 

HORNBEAM 

Hornbeam  or  ironwood  (Ostrya  virginiana) 
is  one  of  the  heaviest,  hardest,  and  toughest 
American  woods,  ranking  very  closely  to  the 
hickories  in  these  respects.  It  is  not  available 
in  such  large  quantities  as  the  hickories,  but  is 
used  for  much  the  same  purposes,  as  Table  89 
indicates. 

Specific  uses  for  hornbeam  includes  axles,  fel- 
loes, tongues,  levers,  canes,  umbrella  sticks,  and 
whipstocks. 

TABLE  89 

Factory  Uses  of  Hornbeam 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Handles    68 

Vehicles 21 

Mill  Work 3 

Furniture 2 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 2 

Other  Uses   4 

Total..  ..100 


Making  Bicycle  Rims  of  Hard  Maple  in  a  New  Hampshire  Factory 


Successive  Stages  in  Making  Shuttles  from  Dogwood  and  Persimmon 


Paint-Brush  Handles  Made   from  Birch  and  Maple 
Plate   32 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


Interior  of  a  Chair  Factory  in  North  Carolina 


Boxes,  Spools,  Shoe  Shanks,  and  Other  Articles  Made  from  Paper 
Birch 

Plate   33 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  273 

LARCH 

See  Tamarack  (page  305). 

LAUREL 

Laurel  (Kcdmia  Icttifolia)  is  a  fine-grained 
hardwood,  produced  in  small  quantities  in  the 
Southern  mountains.  It  is  nearly  as  hard  as 
dogwood,  and  as  heavy  as  white  oak.  It  is  not 
available  in  large  sizes  nor  in  great  quantity; 
but  such  factory  uses  as  are  reported  for  the 
small  amount  consumed  are  as  indicated  in 
Table  90. 

TABLE  90 

Factory  Uses  of  Laurel 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Ship  and  Boat  Building fi6 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 19 

Brooms   and  Carpet-Sweepers 7 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 6 

Other  Uses 2 

Total 100 

The  California  laurel  (Umbellularia  califor- 
nica),  or  myrtle,  is  not  very  abundant,  but  is 
used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  the  manufacture 
of  interior  finish,  fixtures,  furniture,  musical 
instruments,  pilot  wheels,  turnery,  and  novel- 
ties. 

LOCUST 

There  are  two  native  locusts  found  in  the 
Eastern  States — the  honey  locust  (Gleditsia 
triacanthos)  and  the  black  locust  (Robinia 
pseudacacia) .  The  honey  locust  is  not  abun- 


274  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

dant,  however;  and  so,  while  possessing  many 
desirable  qualities  in  the  way  of  strength  and 
hardness,  is  little  used. 

Black  locust  and  osage  orange  closely  com- 
pete for  the  honor  of  being  the  heaviest  and 
strongest  American  woods.  In  other  respects 
they  split  even,  for  osage  orange  is  the  tougher, 
and  black  locust  the  stiffer.  Both  shrink  less 
in  seasoning  than  almost  any  other  wood,  either 
hard  or  soft — which  is  also  an  extremely  desir- 
able quality. 

Black  locust  finds  by  far  its  largest  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  insulator  pins  and  brackets, 
with  a  small  amount  used  for  mill  work,  in  ship 
and  boat  building,  and  for  vehicles.  In  ship 
and  boat  building,  black  locust  is  valuable  for 
tree  nails,  for  the  ancient  method  of  holding  two 
pieces  of  wood  together  by  means  of  a  wooden 
pin  or  nail  has,  for  some  purposes,  not  been 
improved  upon. 

TABLE  91 

Factory  Uses  of  Locust 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Insulator  Pins  and  Brackets 90 

Mill  Work 3 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 3 

Vehicles   2 

Other  Uses 2 

Total 100 

Black  locust  is  also  used  for  patterns,  chucks, 
hubs,  turnery,  trunnels,  and  spokes  for  boat 
wheels. 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  275 

Some  of  the  small  amount  of  honey  locust 
manufactured  is  used  in  furniture,  millwork, 
balusters,  newels,  and  molding. 

MAGNOLIA 

Two  species  of  magnolia  are  cut  for  lumber 
to  some  extent  in  the  Southern  States,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  cucumber  tree  previously  mentioned. 
These  are  the  evergreen  magnolia  (Magnolia 
foetida)  and  the  sweet  magnolia  (Magnolia 
glauca)  or  bay  tree.  Most  of  the  magnolia  lum- 
ber, however,  is  made  from  the  evergreen  mag- 
nolia. 

Magnolia  wood  is  of  compact  structure,  light, 
soft,  easily  worked,  with  a  satiny  luster,  and 
creamy  white  to  light  brown  in  color.  It  goes 
to  market  with  yellow  poplar,  as  well  as  under 
its  proper  name.  Such  separate  factory  uses  of 
magnolia  as  are  reported  are  shown  in  Table  92. 

TABLE  92 

Factory  Uses  of  Magnolia 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 88 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 8 

Mill  Work 2 

Tobacco  Boxes    1 

Other  Uses 1 

Total 100 

\ 

More  specific  uses  reported  for  magnolia 
include : 

Bar  fixtures  Boxes 

Bed-room  suites  Broom  handles 

Boats  Brushes 


276  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Cabinets  Furniture 

Car  sheathing  Interior  finish 

Cotton  gins  Molding 

China  closets  Ox  yokes 

Door  panels  Sash 

Dressers  Tables 

Egg  cases  Wagon  boxes 

Excelsior  Wash  stands 

MAPLE 

Four  species  of  maple  are  of  commercial 
importance  from  the  lumber  standpoint.  These 
are  hard  or  sugar  maple  (Acer  saccharum),  red 
maple  (Acer  rubrum),  soft  or  silver  maple 
(Acer  saccharinum) ,  and  Oregon  maple  (Acer 
macrophyllum).  Hard  maple  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant  and  useful  member  of  the  group. 

The  wood  of  hard  maple  is  of  moderate  weight 
for  a  hardwood,  strong,  hard,  and  with  good 
wearing  qualities.  Variations  in  structure  and 
appearance  due  to  peculiarities  of  growth  give 
curly  and  bird's-eye  effects  which  are  much 
prized.  The  wood  of  soft  maple  is  considerably 
lighter  in  weight,  and  not  so  strong  or  stiff  as 
that  of  the  hard  maple.  It  has  a  good  figure, 
and  is  used  for  many  purposes.  Red  maple  is 
about  midway  between  hard  and  soft  maple  in 
weight  and  strength.  In  hardness,  it  is  close  to 
the  soft  maple;  and  in  stiffness,  not  very  far 
from  the  hard  maple.  Oregon  maple  is  the  only 
commercial  maple  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  is 
the  most  important  hardwood  of  that  region. 
The  wood  resembles  that  of  the  Eastern  maples, 
and  is  used  for  the  same  general  purposes. 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  277 

Hard  maple  is  the  maple  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hardwood  flooring  and  wherever 
strength  and  resistance  to  wear  are  the  deter- 
mining qualities. 

In  the  wood^using  industry  reports,  all  the 
maples  are  grouped  together  with  results  shown 
in  Table  93. 

TABLE  03 

Factory  Uses  of  Maple 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 34 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 17 

Boxes  and  Crates 10 

Boot  and  Shoe  Findings 6 

Agricultural  Implements 5 

Musical  Instruments    5 

Handles    4 

Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc 4 

Vehicles    4 

Laundry  Appliances 2 

Other  Uses 9 

Total 100 

These  specific  uses  reported  for  hard  maple 
indicate  the  great  serviceability  of  this  wood: 

Automobile  benches  Bobbins 

Automobile  bottoms  Bobsleds 

Automobile  gears  Bolsters 

Automobile  sub-floors  Bowling  alleys 

Axles  Bowls 

Baggers  Boxes 

Baseball  bats  Bread  boards 

Baskets  Brewers'  chips 

Bean  pickers  Broom  handles 

Bicycle  rims  Brush  backs 

Billiard  cues  Brush  handles 

Billiard  rings  Built-up  panels 

Blueprint  frames  Butcher  blocks 


278 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Butter  boxes 

Butter  ladles 

Butter  molds 

Cameras 

Canes 

Cant-hook  handles 

Car-gallows  frames 

Carpet-sweepers 

Carrom  cues 

Carrom  rings 

Caster  rollers 

Cattle  guards 

Center  wheels 

Chair  bottoms 

Chair  rods 

Checkers 

Churn  dashers 

Clothespins 

Coat  hangers 

Coil  bases  (telephone) 

Corn  buskers 

Corn  planters 

Corn  shelters 

Costumers 

Cot  frames 

Cranes 

Croquet  balls 

Croquet  mallets 

Culm  pipe   (mines) 

Cultivator  handles 

Curtain  poles 

Dashboards 

Die  blocks 

Die  cases 

Dishes 

Dominoes 

Door  knobs 

Dowels 

Drawer  bottoms 

Dumb-bells 

Electrotype  blocks 

Ensilage  cutters 

Extension  stretchers 

Factory  trucks 


Faucets 

Feed  cutters 

Feeders 

Flooring 

Furniture 

Games 

Gas-engine  skids 

Girts 

Go-carts 

Grain  doors 

Grain  separators 

Grills 

Guitars 

Hand  cars 

Handles 

Handspikes 

Hay  balers 

Hay  pressers 

Hoop  drums 

Horizontal  bars 

Hose  menders 

Indian  clubs 

Interior  finish 

Kitchen  cabinets 

Knobs   (furniture) 

Kraut  cutters 

Ladders 

Lasts 

Lemon  squeezers 

Levers 

Log  cars 

Mallets 

Mandolins 

Mangle  rollers 

Manual  training  supplies 

Manure  spreaders 

Meat  boards 

Medicine  cabinets 

Mission  furniture 

Office  fixtures 

Packing-house  cutting  tables 

Paddles 

Pails 

Paper  cutters 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


279 


Parasol  handles 

Parquetry  floors 

Patterns 

Peavy  handles 

Pianos 

Piano  bridges 

Piano  pin  planks 

Piano  players 

Plow  beams 

Plugs 

Plumbers'  woodwork 

Porch   swings 

Portable  sawmills 

Potato  mashers 

Potato  planters 

Pulley  spokes 

Pumps 

Push  cars 

Racks 

Railroad  velocipedes 

Reed  furniture  (rods) 

Refrigerators 

Riddles 

Road  rollers 

Roller  pins 

Rules 

Sawmill  machinery 

Scythe  snaths 

Self  feeders 

Separators   (grain) 

Sheeting 

Showcases 

Shredders 

Skewers 

Sleighs 

Spindles 

Spoke  wedges 

Spool  barrels 

Spoons 


Steak  mauls 

Steering  wheels 

Stonecutters'  mallets 

Stone  boats 

Store  fixtures 

Switch  boards 

Table  rims 

Talking  machines 

Tanks 

Tanning  drums 

Tenpins 

Threshing  machines 

Thresholds 

Tie  plugs 

Timber  grapples 

Tinners'  mallets 

Tin-plate  boxes 

Toothpicks 

Towel  racks 

Toys 

Track  gauge« 

Track  levels 

Trucks 

Trunks 

Tubs 

Type  cabinets 

Type  cases 

Umbrella  racks 

Wall  cases 

Wall  clocks 

Washboards 

Washing  machines 

Weighing  machines 

Wheelbarrows 

Wind  stackers 

Wooden  bearings 

Wood  knobs  (grilles) 

Woodtype 

Yardsticks 


Soft  maple  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of: 

Auto  frames  Berry  baskets 

Baby  carriages  Boats 

Ballot  boxes  Bookcases 


280 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Boxes 

Brooders   (poultry) 

Broom  handles 

Butter  bowls 

Carpet  sweepers 

Chairs 

Coat  hangers 

Corn  planters 

Cot  frames 

Cradles 

Cultivators  (garden) 

Door  frames 

Egg  cases 

Extension-table  sides 

Fanning  mills 

Filing  cabinets 

Fixtures 

Flooring 

Furniture 

Grass   seeders 

Hall  clocks 

Hand  sleds 

Hay  racks 

Ice  boxes 

Incubators 

Interior  finish 


Ironing  boards 

Kitchen  cabinets 

Knobs   (furniture) 

Lap  boards 

Lawn  swings 

Manual  training  supplies 

Music  cabinets 

Office  fixtures 

Parquet  floors 

Pianos 

Piano  benches 

Pumps 

Potato  planters 

Reels   (wire) 

Refrigerators 

Root  cutters 

Signs 

Sleeve  boards 

Table  tops 

Tabourettes 

Tin-plate  boxes 

Umbrella  racks 

Vehicles 

Velocipedes,  railroad 

Wardrobes 

Woodenware 


Oregon  maple  is  used  on  the  West  Coast  for 
baskets,  boat  finish,  building  rollers,  dollies,  fix- 
tures (counter  tops,  grill  work,  mirror  frames, 
show  cases),  furniture  (bookcases,  chairs,  daven- 
port frames,  school  furniture,  spindles,  tables), 
handles,  interior  work  (finish,  flooring),  pul- 
leys, saddles,  tent  toggles,  and  trunk  slats. 

OAK 

Botanists  recognize  some  fifty  species  of  oak 
in  the  United  States,  all  but  a  few  of  which 
attain  tree  size,  while  many  are  among  the  larg- 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  281 

est  and  finest  hardwoods.  With  such  a  wealth  of 
species,  it  is  impossible  to  get  statistics  upon 
the  consumption  of  the  separate  kinds  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy.  Moreover,  most  of  the  oak 
is  marketed  under  the  general  names  of  "white 
oak"  or  "red  oak,"  without  further  specific  dis- 
tinction. 

Of  the  white  oak  group,  the  most  important 
are  the  true  white  oak  (Quercus  alba),  bur  oak 
(Quercus  macrocarpa),  post  oak  (Quercus 
minor),  cow  oak  (Quercus  michauxii),  chestnut 
oak  (Quercus  prinus),  overcup  oak  (Quercus 
lyrata),  and  Oregon  oak  (Quercus  garryana). 
Of  the  red  oak  group,  the  most  useful  species 
are  the  true  red  oak  (Quercus  rubra),  Texan 
oak  (Quercus  Texana),  chinquapin  oak  (Quercus 
acuminata),  yellow  oak  (Quercus  velutina), 
scarlet  oak  (Quercus  coccinea),  turkey  oak 
(Quercus  catesbaei),  Spanish  oak  (Quercus 
digitata),  pin  oak  (Quercus  palustris),  shingle 
oak  (Quercus  imbricaria),  and  willow  oak 
(Quercus  phellos).  The  white  and  red  oak 
groups  supply  about  equal  amounts  of  lumber. 
Two  other  important  species  which  belong  to 
neither  group  are  live  oak  (Quercus  virginicma) 
and  California  tanbark  oak  (Quercus  densi- 
flora). 

The  wood  of  nearly  all  the  oaks  is  heavy,  hard, 
strong,  and  tough,  with  the  characteristic  figure 
which  has  always  made  oak  a  standard  cabinet, 
furniture,  finish,  and  flooring  wood,  in  addition 


282  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

to  its  great  usefulness  for  vehicles  and  in  other 
places  where  strength  is  essential. 

There  is,  of  course,  considerable  variation  in 
the  strength,  hardness,  stiffness,  weight,  and 
other  properties  of  the  oaks,  as  is  shown  in  the 
chapter  upon  the  properties  of  wood.  Among 
all  the  oaks,  the  live  oak  leads  in  strength,  hard- 
ness, and  toughness.  In  the  days  of  wooden 
ships,  it  was  especially  in  demand.  The  supply 
of  live  oak  timber  is  much  less  than  that  of 
many  other  oaks;  and  at  present  but  little  is 
manufactured  into  lumber. 

Without  regard  to  species,  the  factory  uses 
of  oak  are  summarized  in  Table  94. 

TABLE  94 

Factory  Uses  of  Oak 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Furniture   and   Fixtures 32 

Mill  Work 25 

Car  Construction 15 

Vehicles 11 

Agricultural  Implements 3 

Boxes  and  Crates 3 

Snip  and  Boat  Building 2 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 2 

Musical  Instruments 1 

Sewing  Machines 1 

Other  Uses 5 

Total 100 

The  many  specific  uses  for  white  oak  are  illus- 
trated by  the  following  list  of  articles  in  which 
this  wood  is  used  in  the  factories  of  Illinois: 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


Altars   (church) 
Art  lamps 
Axe  handles 
Backgrounds   (display 

windows) 

Ball  racks  (pool  and  billiard? 
Balusters 
Barber  chairs 
Barber  furniture 
Bar  fixtures 
Bars  (wooden  harrows) 
Baseboards 
Basket  parts 
Beams  (plow) 
Beds 

Beds  (cot) 
Beds  (folding) 
Billiard  (tables) 
Binder  parts 
Boat  parts  (row) 
Bobsleds 

Bolsters  (heavy  vehicles) 
Bookcases 
Book  racks 

Bottoms  (baggage  trucks) 
Bottoms  (delivery  wagons) 
Braces   (railway  car  frames) 
Brackets 

Brake  beams  (heavy  vehicles) 
Brush  blocks 
Buffets  (exterior) 
Bumping  posts  (railroad) 
Butter  churn  bodies 
Butter  churn  bottoms 
Cabinets  (dental) 
Cabinets  (filing) 
Cabinets  (music  rolls) 
Cabinets  (parlor) 
Cabinets  (phonograph 

records) 

Cabinets  (toilet) 
Cabinets  (towels) 
Cabins  (boats) 
Capitals 


Card  tables 

Cases  (medicine) 

Cases  (railroad  ticket) 

Casing 

Caskets 

Chair  frames 

Chairs 

Chairs  (adjustable) 

Chairs  (invalid) 

Chairs  (office) 

Chairs,  official   (lodge  room) 

Chairs  (rolling) 

Chairs  (stenographers) 

Cheval  mirrors 

Chiffoniers 

China  closets 

Church  pews 

Cigar  wheels  (wheel-of- 

chance) 
Clay  gatherers  (machine 

parts) 

Cleats  (wagon  boxes) 
Coffins 
Colonnades 
Columns  (porch) 
Consoles 

Cores  (veneer  doors) 
Corn  binders 
Corn  grinders 
Costumers 
Couches  (folding) 
Counters  (bar) 
Counters  (store) 
Cradles 

Cue  racks  (pool  and  billiard) 
Cultivator  handles 
Desks  (electric  switchboards) 
Desks  (house) 
Desks  (office) 
Disc  drill  parts 
Disc  harrow  parts 
Door  frames  (Ry.  box  cars) 
Doors 
Doubletrees  (farm 

implements) 


284 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Doubletrees  (vehicle) 

Drags  (farm  implements) 

Dressers 

Dressing  tables 

Drill  parts  (farm  implements) 

Drum  lagging  (hoisting 

engine) 

Edge-tool  handles 
Electric  cars  (interior  finish) 
Elevator  cages 
Eveners  (farm  implements) 
Felloes 
File  cases 
Finish  (boats) 
Fixtures  (bank) 
Fixtures  (barbershop) 
Fixtures  (display  window) 
Fixtures  (laboratory) 
Fixtures  (soda  fountain) 
Fixtures  (store  and  office) 
Flooring  (hardwood) 
Folding  beds 
Folding  screens 
Frames  (couches) 
Frames  (davenports) 
Frames  (dummy  carts) 
Frames  (electric  cars) 
Frames  (freight  cars) 
Frames  (light  vehicle  bodies) 
Frames  (lounges) 
Frames  (motor  boats) 
Frames  (upholstered 

furniture) 
Frames  (vessels) 
Frames  (window) 
Furniture 

Gear  woods  (light  vehicle) 
Grilles 

Guitar  bodies 
Hall  racks 
Hammer  handles 
Handles 

Hand  rails  (stairwork) 
Harrows 


Hatracks 

Hay  baler  parts 

Hayrake  parts 

Horse  powers 

Hounds 

Hubs  (heavy  vehicle  wheel) 

Hulls  (boats) 

Hydraulic  jacks 

Interior  finish 

Keels  (boats) 

Keels  (motor  boats) 

Keyracks 

Kitchen  cabinets   (exterior) 

Kitchen  cupboards 

Kitchen  safes 

Ladders  (gymnasium) 

Launch  parts 

Lawn  swings 

Leaves  (table) 

Legs  (piano) 

Library  cases 

Lodge  furniture 

Machine  handles 

Mandolin  bodies 

Mantels 

Manure  spreaders 

Merry-go-round  parts 

Mirror  cases 

Mission  furniture 

Molding  (house  trimming) 

Molding  (piano) 

Molding  (stairwork) 

Mug  cases  (barbershop) 

Music  cabinets 

Necktie  racks 

Newels 

Oil  well  machine  frames 

Organ  cases 

Ornaments  (furniture) 

Outer  cases  (caskets) 

Panels  (veneered) 

Paper  racks 

Parallel  bars 

Parlor  cabinets  (exterior) 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


Parlor  rockers 
Parquetry  flooring 
Passenger  cars  (frames) 
Passenger  cars  (interior 

finish) 
Pedestals 
Pedestals  (tables) 
Pew  racks 
Piano  benches 
Piano  cases 
Piano  chairs 
Piano  players  (exterior) 
Piano  stools 
Pick  handles 
Picture  moldings 
Pilasters  (piano) 
Plate  racks 
Plow  beams 
Plow  handles 
Plow  rounds 
Plow  parts  (gang) 
Plows 

Poles  (light  vehicles) 
Pool  tables 

Posts  (railway  car  frames) 
Posts  (stairwork) 
Pulpits  (church) 
Racks  (hat  and  coat) 
Reaches  (heavy  vehicles) 
Reels  (electric  light  wire) 
Refrigerators 
Revolving  chairs  (office) 
Revolving  chairs  (parlor  cars) 
Rims  (heavy  vehicle  wheels) 
Risers  (stairwork) 
Road-scrapers 
Rocker  frames  (upholstered 

furniture) 
Sand  boards 
Sash 

Screen  doors 
Seats  (water  closets) 
Sections  (wheel-scrapers) 
Seeder  parts  (farm 

implements) 


Serving  tables 
Sewing  tables 
Shanks  (cultivators) 
Shells  (drum) 
Sideboards  (built  in) 
Sideboards  (exterior) 
Siding  (boats) 
Sills  (threshers) 
Singletrees  (cultivators) 
Singletrees  (vehicle) 
Sleds  (toy) 
Sofa  frames  (upholstered 

furniture) 
Somnols 

Spokes  (heavy  vehicles) 
Spring  bars 

Spring  blocks  (Ry.  tank  cars) 
Stacker  parts  (farm 

machinery) 
Stands 

Stands  (jardinieres) 
Stands  (lamps) 
Staves  (water  tanks) 
Steps  (stairwork) 
Stringers  (railway  cars) 
Subscriber  sets  (telephone) 
Sulky  plow  parts 
Sweeps  (farm  machinery) 
Sweeps  (windmills) 
Switchboards  (telephone  and 

telegraph) 
Tables  (cafe) 
Tables  (dining) 
Tables  (extension) 
Tables  (library) 
Tables  (parlor) 
Tables  (typewriter) 
Tables  (writing) 
Tabourets 
Tanks  (brewery) 
Tanks  (distilling) 
Tanks  (water  closets) 
Telephones 
Threshing  machines 
Tight  cooperage  stock 


286 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Tongues  (wheel-scrapers) 

Tool  chests 

Tool  handles 

Trays  (jewelry) 

Type  (cabinets) 

Typewriter  cabinets 

Umbrella  stands 

Vats  (distilling) 

Vats  (oil) 

Vending  machines  (matches) 

Vending  machines  (peanuts) 


Vestment  cases  (church) 
Wagon  boxes 
Wainscoting 
Wall  cases 
Wardrobes  (exterior) 
Washstands 
Water  gates 
Water  wheels 
Well-digging  machines 
Windmill  parts 
Window  screens 


The  red  oaks  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of ; 


Agricultural  implements 

Art  lamps 

Back  grounds 

Balusters 

Barber  furniture 

Barrow  boxes 

Baskets 

Beds 

Bentwood 

Billiard  tables 

Boats 

Bob  sleds 

Bolsters 

Bottoms  (wagon) 

Boxes 

Brackets 

Brake  bars 

Bucket  staves 

Buggy  bows 

Cabinets 

Cabin  parts 

Car  construction 

Cars  (mine) 

Car  repairing 

Casing   (building) 

Caskets 

Chair  frames    (upholstered 

furniture) 
Chairs 

Chairs  (office) 
Chair  stock 


China  closets 

Church  pews 

Clocks 

Clothes  props 

Corn  shellers 

Cornices 

Crating 

Cultivator  handles 

Decking 

Disc  harrow  parts 

Doors 

Double  doors  (farm 

implements) 

Drags   (farm  implements) 
Dressers 
Dressing  tables 
Elevator  flooring 
Eveners    (farm  implements) 
File  cases 
Fixtures  (bank) 
Fixtures  (barber  shop) 
Fixtures  (display  window) 
Fixtures  (soda  fountain) 
Flooring  (hardwood) 
Flag  staffs 
Folding  beds 
Folding  machines 
Frames  (couches) 
Frames  (davenport) 
Frames  (light   and   heavy 

vehicle  bodies) 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


287 


Frames  (upholstered  parlor 

furniture) 
Furniture 
Hallracks 
Hay-loader  parts 
Interior  finish 
Kitchen  cabinets  (exterior) 
Laundry  appliances 
Lodge  furniture 
Mantels 

Manure  spreaders 
Mission  furniture 
Molding  (stairwork) 
Organ  (pipe)  cases 
Organ  actions 
Organs 

Parquetry  flooring 
Patterns 
Piano  benches 
Piano  cases 
Piano  parts 
Piano  stools 
Piano  tops 
Picture  molding 
Planing  mill  products 
Platforms  (stairwork) 
Plow  beams 
Plow  handles 


Plow  rounds 

Plumbers'  woodwork 

Pokes  (animal) 

Porch  work 

Refrigerators 

Rocker  frames   (upholstered 

furniture) 
Sash 

Sheathing 
Showcases 

Sideboards  (built  in) 
Sideboards  (exterior  work) 
Signs 

Sling  crossbars 
Stirrups 

Sulky  plow  parts 
Table  legs 
Tables  (extension) 
Tables  (library) 
Tables  (writing) 
Tabourets 

Tanks   (water  closets) 
Trucks 
Toys 
Vehicles 
Veneer 
Wainscoting 
Washstands 
Woodenware 


Plow  parts  (gang) 

Oregon  oak  is  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in 
place  of  both  white  and  red  oak  from  the  East, 
and  especially  for  baskets,  boats  (frames,  inter- 
ior, finish,  keels,  ribs,  sills),  fixtures,  furniture 
(cabinets,  chair  stock,  table  tops),  handles, 
interior  work,  insulator  pins,  saddles,  and 
wagons. 

The  tanbark  oak  of  California  is  an  import- 
ant source  of  tanbark  in  that  State.  It  has  not 
been  much  used  for  lumber  so  far ;  but,  with  the 
methods  of  cutting  and  seasoning  adapted  to  a 


288  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

hardwood,  it  will  prove  useful  for  many  pur- 
poses. 

OSAGE  ORANGE 

Osage  orange  (Toxylon  pomiferum)  is  the 
heaviest,  hardest,  and  toughest  American  wood 
so  far  tested;  but  in  strength  and  stiffness  it  is 
somewhat  surpassed  by  black  locust.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  durable  woods,  and  fence-posts  of 
it  give  very  long  service.  Because  of  the  poor 
form  of  the  tree  and  its  rarity  in  native  condi- 
tion, except  in  a  rather  limited  region  in  Okla- 
homa and  Texas,  not  much  osage  orange  lumber 
is  produced.  The  largest  use  is  for  wagon  fel- 
loes for  service  in  arid  regions.  Osage  orange 
is  especially  adapted  to  this  purpose,  because  of 
the  very  small  amount  which  it  shrinks  and  its 
great  toughness. 

Such  factory  uses  as  are  reported  for  osage 
orange  are  summarized  in  Table  95. 

TABLE  95 

Factory  Uses  of  Osage  Orange 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Vehicles   84 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 9 

Car  Construction    6 

Other  Uses 1 

Total 100 

Osage  orange  is  also  used  to  some  extent  for 
canes,  clock  cases,  furniture  parts,  insulator 
pins,  hubs,  inlaid  work,  and  mauls. 


Bringing   in   the   Logs  Unloading    Logs    at    the    Mill 


| 


Hauling  White  Cedar  Posts  in  Winter 


Dinner  Time  at  Camp  Good  Train  Load  of  Logs 

TYPICAL   LUMBERING   SCENES 
Plate   34 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  289 

PERSIMMON 

The  persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana)  is  a 
member  of  the  ebony  family ;  and  its  dark  heart- 
wood  resembles  ebony  in  being  very  heavy,  hard, 
and  strong.  Persimmon  wood  is  very  fine- 
grained, takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  extremely 
resistant  to  wear.  For  this  reason,  persimmon 
finds  its  largest  use  in  the  manufacture  of  shut- 
tles, along  with  dogwood.  The  process  of  man- 
ufacture for  the  latter  is  illustrated  in  Plate  32. 

The  reported  uses  of  persimmon  are  indicated 
in  Table  96. 

TABLE  96 
Factory  Uses  of  Persimmon 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Shuttles   82 

Boot  and  Shoe  Findings 11 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 6 

Other  Uses 1 

Total 100 

PINE 

The  pines  are  found  to  some  extent  in  almost 
every  forest  region,  and,  in  total  number  of  spe- 
cies, are  as  numerous  as  the  oaks.  They  fur- 
nish nearly  half  of  the  annual  lumber  supply. 

There  are  two  large  groups  of  pines,  as  there 
are  two  main  groups  of  oaks.  These  are  the 
white  pines  and  the  yellow  pines.  Aside  from 
the  common  white  pine  (Pinus  strobus),  of 
which  more  lumber  has  so  far  been  manufac- 


290  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

tured  than  of  any  other  species  in  the  United 
States,  other  important  members  of  the  white 
pine  family  are  Western  white  pine  (Pinus 
monticola),  which  is  most  abundant  in  western 
Montana  and  northern  Idaho;  and  sugar  pine 
(Pinus  lambertiana),  of  the  Sierra  region  of 
California  and  southern  Oregon. 

In  the  yellow  pine  group  are  longleaf  pine 
(Pinus  palustris),  shortleaf  pine  (Pinus  echi- 
nata),  loblolly  pine  (Pinus  taeda),  and  Cuban 
pine  (Pinus  heterophylla) ,  of  the  South;  pitch 
pine  (Pinus  rigida),  which  occurs  both  north 
and  south  in  the  Eastern  States;  Norway  or  red 
pine  (Pinus  resinosa),  of  New  England  and  the 
Lake  States;  jack  pine  (Pinus  divaricata),  of 
the  Lake  States;  lodgepole  pine  (Pinus  con- 
torta),  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region;  and 
Western  yellow  pine  (Pinus  ponderosa),  from 
the  Black  Hills  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 

There  are  so  niany  trade  names  applied  to  the 
pines  without  distinction  of  species  that  the 
reader  is  often  confused.  Much  of  the  South- 
ern pine  goes  to  market  simply  as  yellow  pine ; 
but  the  loblolly  pine  of  the  North  Carolina- Vir- 
ginia district  is  called  " North  Carolina  pine," 
while  "Georgia  pine"  is  a  time-honored  term 
for  the  longleaf  pine  of  that  State.  "  Arkansas 
soft  pine"  is  a  trade  designation  for  the  short- 
leaf  pine  of  Arkansas.  Some  of  the  white  pine 
and  Norway  pine  in  the  Lake  States  is  sold 
under  the  common  name  of  " Northern  pine." 
Western  yellow  pine  is  marketed  under  a  variety 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  291 

TABLE   97 

Factory  Uses  of  Pine 

WHITE  PINE 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 49 

Boxes  and  Crates 36 

Car  Construction   2 

Matches    2 

Rollers,  Shade  and  Map 2 

Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc 1 

Caskets  and  Coffins 1 

Other  Uses   7 

Total 100 

SOUTHERN  YELLOW  PINE 

Mill  Work 75 

Boxes  and  Crates 12 

Car  Construction    . .  . .  ! 8 

Agricultural  Implements 1 

Other  Uses 4 

Total 100 

SUGAR  PINE 

Mill  Work 65 

Boxes  and  Crates 40 

Musical    Instruments    2 

Other  Uses    3 

Total 100 

WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE 

Boxes  and  Crates 51 

Mill  Work 47 

Other  Uses   2 

Total..  ..100 


292  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

of  names;  but  the  most  common  designation, 
aside  from  " California  white  pine,"  is  simply 
" Western  pine,"  the  term  applied  in  the  Mon- 
tana-Idaho-Washington region. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  comparisons  in  the 
chapter  on  properties  of  wood,  the  weight, 
strength,  stiffness,  and  toughness  of  the  pines 
are  as  varied  as  are  the  numerous  species.  The 
white  pines  are  light  in  weight,  soft,  even- 
grained,  and  easily  worked,  being  in  this  respect 
much  like  the  spruces  and  cedars.  Longleaf 
pine  is  the  heaviest,  hardest,  strongest,  stiffest, 
and  toughest  softwood,  and,  in  these  properties, 
ranks  ahead  of  a  number  of  the  hardwoods. 
Between  white  pine  and  longleaf  pine,  the  other 
pines  offer  almost  every  gradation  in  proper- 
ties. 

All  of  the  pines  are  largely  in  demand  for 
general  building  purposes.  In  addition  to  these, 
the  statistical  reports  furnish  the  data  summar- 
ized in  Table  97  as  to  the  factory  uses  of  white 
pine,  sugar  pine,  Western  pine,  and  Southern 
yellow  pine,  the  latter  being  made  without  ref- 
erence to  species. 

The  varied  usefulness  of  the  pines  is  still  fur- 
ther indicated  by  reports  of  their  consumption 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  following  articles: 

WHITE  PINE 

Agricultural  implements  Automobile  bodies 

Actions  (organ)  Balusters    (porch) 

Actions  (piano)  Barrel-starchers    (laundry) 

Actions  (piano  players)  Beehives 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


293 


Bellows  (blacksmith) 

Bellows  (reed  organs) 

Blinds 

Boat  parts  (row) 

Bookcases   (inside) 

Bottoms   (wagon   boxes) 

Bottoms   (water  tanks) 

Boxes 

Boxes   (organ) 

Boxes   (piano) 

Boxes  (yeast) 

Box  snooks 

Brackets   (cornice) 

Brackets   (porch) 

Brooders  (poultry) 

Buckets 

Cabin  parts   (boats) 

Cabinet  work   (unexposed) 

Capitals 

Cases  (beer  bottles) 

Cases  (milk  bottles) 

Cases  (railroad  tickets) 

Cases  (piano  parts) 

Caskets 

Casting  patterns 

Chests   (organ) 

China  cases  (inside  work) 

Clocks 

Coffins 

Columns  (porch) 

Coops   (poultry) 

Covers   (door  panels) 

Cores  (tin-clad  doors) 

Cornices 

Corn  shellers 

Couches  (box) 

Crating 

Cupolas  (foundry) 

Deadwood  (tank  towers) 

Desks   (tank  towers) 

Door  frames 

Doors 

Elevator  guide  posts 

Elevator  platforms 


Feed  mills 

Fixtures   (barroom) 

Fixtures   (soda  fountain) 

Flooring   (motor  boats) 

Foundry  flasks 

Frames   (couches) 

Frames   (davenports) 

Frames   (lounges) 

Freight  cars 

Furniture  (inside) 

Girdles 

Grain  doors 

Grain  elevators 

Horizontal  folding  doors 

Incubators 

Insulation  (Ry.  refrigerator 

cars) 

Interior  finish 
Keys   (piano) 
Kitchen  cabinets 
Ladders 
Launch  parts 
Laundry  machines 

(hydraulic) 

Linings  (Ry.  box  cars) 
Log-car  templates 
Matches 
Molding 
Office  fixtures 
Pails 

Passenger  cars 
Patterns 

Pharmaceutical  packing 
Picture  frames 
Planking  (boats) 
Porch  columns 
Portable  farm  forges 
Pumps 

Refrigerators 
Saddlery  cutting  boards 
Sash 

Shredders 
Siding 

91108 


294 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Steam-pipe  casing 

Tanks 

Threshers 

Tobacco  cases 

Track  levels,  railroad 

Traction  engines 

Trunks 

Tubs 


Washing  machines 
Water  pipes 
Weighers 
Windmills 
Windmill  tanks 
Window  frames 
Windstackers 
Woodenware 


NORWAY   PINE 


Agricultural  implements 

Automobile  blocking 

Baskets 

Bed  slats 

Beehives 

Boat  decking 

Boat  keels 

Boat  planking 

Boat  sheathing 

Boxes 

Brackets 

Candy  buckets 

Ceiling 

Cornice 

Cornshellers 

Crates 

Derricks 

Doors 

Dump  cars 

Extension  ladders 

Fish  kits 

Flasks 

Flooring 

Frames 

Freight  cars 

Furniture 

Grass  seeders 


Hay  presses 

Interior  finish 

Kegs  for  cattle  powder 

Ladders 

Lard  buckets 

Log  cars 

Machine  decking 

Patterns 

Piano  ribs 

Piano  players 

Porch  work 

Portable  farm  forges 

Putty  kegs 

Sash 

Sawmill  frames 

Separators 

Shade  rollers 

Signs 

Silos 

Swings 

Templets 

Threshing  machines 

Wagon  beds 

Wardrobes 

Windmill  platforms 

Window  frames 


LONGLEAF  PINE 


Awning  frames 

Balusters 

Baseboards 

Bases  (gasoline  engines) 


Beds   (coal  wagons) 

Binder  parts 

Boat  decking 

Bottoms  (heavy  vehicles) 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


295 


Bottoms   (light  vehicles) 

Boxboards   (dump  carts) 

Boxboards   (wagons) 

Boxes 

Box  shocks 

Brackets  (cornice) 

Brackets  (interior  trimmings) 

Brackets  (porch) 

Cabinets  (dental) 

Cabinets  (jewelry) 

Cabinets  (toilet) 

Cabinet  work 

Capitals 

Car  sills 

Cases   (china) 

Cases   (medicine) 

Casing 

Ceiling 

Climbing  poles    (gymnasium) 

Cold  storage  rooms 

Colonnades 

Columns   (porch) 

Consoles 

Cores  (veneer  doors) 

Cores   (veneer  panels) 

Corn  husker  parts 

Corn  pickers 

Cotton  pickers 

Covers  (water  tanks) 

Cradles   (tank  cars) 

Cranes   (flooring) 

Crating 

Cultivator  parts 

Decking  (freight  cars) 

Decks  (boats) 

Derrick  beams 

Disc  harrow  parts 

Display  racks   (rugs) 

Door  frames 

Doors 

Doors  (railway  box  cars) 

Drill  boxes  (farm  implements) 

Elevator  guide  posts 

Elevators 


Eveners  (harrows) 

Feed  mills 

Finish   (boats) 

Fixtures   (laboratory) 

Fixtures   (office,  cafe) 

Flag  poles 

Flasks 

Flooring 

Flooring  (freight  cars) 

Flooring  (railway  refrigerator 

cars) 

Flooring  (scale  platforms) 
Frames  (box  cars) 
Frames  (motor  boat  hulls) 
Frost  boxes  (windmills) 
Gears  (heavy  wagons) 
Grain  elevators 
Grille  work 
Hand  cars 

Handrails  (stairwork) 
Hayloader  parts 
Hay  presses 
Hayracks 
Hayrake  parts 
Head  blocks  (tank  cars) 
Header  parts 
Hydraulic  jacks   (parts) 
Ice  boxes 
Interior  finish 
Ladders  (extension) 
Ladders  (step) 
Lawn  swings 
Linings  (box  cars) 
Linings  (incubator  bodies) 
Mantels 

Moldings  (interior  finish) 
Neck  yokes 
Needle  beams  (railway  oar 

frames) 

Newels  (stairwork) 
Ornaments  (furniture) 
Panels  (veneered) 
Passenger  cars  (frames) 
Pianos  (interior  work) 


296 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


Pickets   (fence) 
Picture  moldings 
Platforms  (tank  towers) 
Plow  parts  (gang) 
Poles   (farm  implements) 
Poles   (wagons) 
Posts   (stairwork) 
Pump  rods  (windmills) 
Railway  motor  car  parts 
Railway  push  cars 
Refrigerators 
Risers  (stairwork) 
Road  machinery 
Road  tools 
Roofing  (box  cars) 
Screen  doors 
Seats  (water  closets) 
Seed-corn  driers 
Seeder  boxes   (farm 

implements) 
Shoveling  boards  (farm 

wagons) 

Sideboards  (built  in) 
Side  plates  (railway  freight 

cars) 

Siding  (box  cars) 
Signboards 
Signs  (advertising) 
Sills  (railway  cars) 


Silos 

Skids  (engine) 

Slats  (railway  cattle  cars) 

Stacker  parts   (farm 

machinery) 
Steps   (stairwork) 
Stringers  (railway  cars) 
Sulky  plow  parts 
Sweeps  (feed  mills) 
Sweeps  (water  tanks) 
Tackle  blocks 
Tanks   (acid) 
Tent  poles 
Threshing  machines 
Tobacco  cases 
Tongues  (binders) 
Tongues  (cotton  planters) 
Tongues  (manure  spreaders) 
Tongues  (plows  and 

cultivators) 
Tongues  (wagons) 
Wagon  dumps 
Wainscoting 

Washing  machines  (hand) 
Washing  machines 

(hydraulic) 

Well-digging  machines 
Window  frames 
Windmills 


LOBLOLLY  PINE 


Agricultural   implements 

Balusters 

Baseboards 

Basket   Bottoms 

Blinds 

Boat  construction 

Boxes 

Boxes  (coffee) 

Boxes   (dry   goods) 

Box  shocks 

Cabbage  crates 

Cabinets 

Car  decking 


Car  siding 

Casing 

Ceiling 

Clapboards 

Coffins 

Conduits 

Cornices 

Crating 

Cross-arms 

Decking   (freight  cars) 

Doors 

Door  frames 

Dunnage  (freight  oars) 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  297 

Excelsior  Refrigerators 

Fixtures  Roofers 

Furniture  backs  Sample  cases 

Furniture   (veneer   cores)  Sash 

Flooring  Screens   (door) 

Flooring   (factory)  Screens    (window) 

Flooring   (freight  car)  Siding 

Grain  doors  Siding   (freight  cars) 

Interior  trim  (house)  Silos 

Kitchen  cabinets  Stair  rails 

Ladders  Stairways 

Landing  posts  Store  fronts 

Lining  (freight  cars)  Tanks 

Moldings  Trunk  boxes 

Newel  posts  Vehicles 

Outer  cases   (casket)  Wagon  panels 

Panels   (furniture  sides)  Wardrobes 

Partition  Window   frames 

Pilasters  Wire  reels 

Poultry  coop   (bottoms)  Woodenware 

Western  white  pine,  sugar  pine,  and  much  of 
the  Western  yellow  pine  are  used  for  the  same 
general  purposes  as  Eastern  white  pine.  The 
first  two  are  true  white  pines,  while  the  sap- 
wood  of  the  Western  yellow  pine  resembles 
white  pine  in  several  respects. 

The  uses  of  shortleaf  pine  are  as  numerous  and 
diversified  as  those  listed  for  longleaf  and  lob- 
lolly pine. 

YELLOW  POPLAR 

Yellow  poplar  (Liriodendron  tuUpifera)  is  a 
light,  soft,  fine-grained,  easily  worked  durable 
wood  in  many  respects  much  like  basswood.  It 
has  a  wide  range  of  (usefulness;  and,  in  addition 
to  serving  in  its  own  proper  form,  yellow  poplar 
is  also  much  used  as  a  backing  for  veneer  of 
other  woods. 


298  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

The  factory  uses  most  largely  reported  for 
yellow  poplar  are  indicated  in  Table  98. 

TABLE   08 
Factory  Uses  of  Yellow  Poplar 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill   Work    35 

Boxes  and  Crates 24 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 10 

Vehicles    7 

Musical  Instruments    6 

Car  Construction    5 

Bungs  and  Faucets 3 

Agricultural  Implements 2 

Caskets  and  Coffins   1 

Sewing  Machines    1 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 1 

Tobacco  Boxes    1 

Other  Uses    4 

Total    100 

The  following  list  of  articles  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  which  yellow  poplar  is  used,  gives  a  still 
better  idea  of  the  varied  purposes  which  this 
wood  serves: 

Actions    (piano   players)  Brush  blocks 

Aeroplanes  Carvings 

Agricultural   implements  Cabinets 

Automobiles  Car  repairing 

Backs    (washboards)  Car  construction 

Barber  chairs  Carpet  sweepers 

Baseboards  Cart  beds 

Baskets   (fruit)  Cases   (medicine) 

Bevel  siding  Casing 

Billiard  tables  Caskets 

Blinds  Ceiling 

Bookcases  Church  furniture 

Bowling  alleys  China  closets   (inside) 
Boxboards    (heavy  vehicles)         Cider  mills 

Boxes    (veneer)  Cigar  boxes 

Box  shocks  Churns 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


Coffins 

Cornice 

Corn  shelters 

Costumers 

Crates  (fruit  and  vegetable) 

Crating 

Desks   (inside) 

Drawer   bottoms    (furniture) 

Doors 

Egg  cases 

Elevators 

Elevators  (corn) 

Evaporator  pan  sides 

Exterior  finish 

Facia 

Feedcutter  tables 

Fixtures   (bank) 

Fixtures   (bar) 

Fixtures    (display    windows) 

Fixtures    (laboratory) 

Fixtures   (store  and  office) 

Flooring 

Flour  mills   (machinery 
parts) 

Frames   (couches) 

Frames   (davenports) 

Frames   (lounges) 

Frames   (organ   interior) 

Frames  (upholstered  furni- 
ture) 

Furniture    (inside) 

Goldleaf  work 

Guitar  bodies 

Guitar  necks 

Handles 

Header  parts 

Hoppers 

Interior  finish 

Ironing-boards 

Keels   (boats) 

Ladders 

Laundry  machines   (hand) 

Laundry    machines    (hydrau- 
lic 

Lawn  swings 


Lodge   furniture 

Mandolin  bodies 

Mandolin  necks 

Matches 

Moldings  (piano  cases) 

Music  cabinets   (inside  work) 

Organ  parts   (interior) 

Organ  pipes 

Packages    (fruit  and  vege- 
table) 

Panels   (automobile    bodies) 

Panels   (vehicle   bodies) 

Panels   (veneered) 

Passenger  cars  (interior 
work) 

Patterns 

Pedestals 

Peels   (bakers') 

Piano  parts 

Picture  moldings 

Pipe  organs  (interior  parts) 

Pool  tables 

Porch  columns 

Pulpits  (church) 

Pumps 

Railway  motor  car  parts 

Refrigerators 

Rollers  (farm  machinery) 

Sash 

Screen  doors 

Seats   (automobile) 

Seats  (buggy) 

Seats   (carriages) 

Seats   (water  closets) 

Seeder  boxes   (farm  imple- 
ments) 

Separator  sides   (threshers) 

Sewing  machine  parts 

Sideboards  (built  in) 

Siding   (grain  grinders) 

Siding   (Ry.   refrigerator 
cars) 

Siding   (wagon  beds) 

Somnols 


300  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Stacker  parts    (farm   ma-  Vane  slats    (windmill) 

chinery)  Veneer  cores    (organ   cases) 

Tables   (cafe)  Veneer  cores  (piano) 

Tables   (dining)  Wardrobes  (inside) 

Tables   (kitchen)  Washing  machines   (laundry) 

Telephones  Well  machinery 

Threshing  machines  Wheel  slats  (windmill) 

Troughs   (bakers')  Window  screens 

Trunks  Woodenware 

Type  cabinets  Zither  bodies 

REDWOOD 

Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens)  is  a  very 
soft,  light,  straight-grained  softwood  of  great 
size  and  durability.  Redwood  is  the  strongest 
in  proportion  to  its  weight  of  any  wood  so  far 
tested  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service. 
While  in  cross-breaking  strength  it  is  surpassed 
by  a  number  of  the  stronger  softwoods,  redwood 
ranks  close  to  longleaf  pine  in  resistance  to  end- 
crushing. 

Redwood  finds  its  largest  use  in  general  build- 
ing, and  especially  for  siding  and  shingles, 
where  its  great  durability  is  especially  desir- 

T ABLE  09 

Factory  Uses  of  Redwood 
Purpose  Per  cent 

Mill  Work 78 

Pumps  and  Wood  Pipe 7 

Tanks  and  Silos   7 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 3 

Boxes  and  Crates 2 

Caskets  and  Coffins   1 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 1 

Other  Uses    1 

Total 100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  301 

able.  Redwood  is  also  much  used  for  mill  work 
because  of  its  comparative  freedom  from  swell- 
ing and  shrinking  with  atmospheric  changes, 
after  it  is  once  thoroughly  seasoned. 

The  more  important  factory  uses  reported  for 
redwood  are  as  indicated  in  Table  99. 

Other  common  uses  for  redwood  are  for: 

Boat  finish  Molding 

Caskets  Musical  instruments 

Cabinets  Patterns 

Coffins  Porch  columns 

Dairymen's  supplies                       Sash 

Doors  Signs 

Flasks  Silos 

Fixtures  Tanks 

Incubators  Windmills 

Interior  finish 

SASSAFRAS 

Sassafras  (Sassafras  sassafras)  is  a  soft  hard- 
wood of  medium  weight  and  much  durability. 
The  supply  of  sassafras  lumber  is  not  large,  but 
it  serves  good  purposes  where  available.  Nearly 
all  of  it  goes  into  various  forms  of  mill  work, 
and  a  small  proportion  into  furniture  and  fix- 
tures. 

The  reports  indicate  that  sassafras  is  also 
used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  novel- 
ties, souvenirs,  and  woodenware. 

SPRUCE 

Like  the  term  " cedar,"  the  word  "spruce" 
covers  a  number  of  species  both  Eastern  and 
Western.  Important  from  the  wood-using  stand- 


302  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

point  are  the  red  spruce  (Picea  rub  ens),  which 
is  abundant  in  New  England,  and  extends  south- 
ward on  the  mountain  ranges  as  far  as  North 
Carolina;  black  spruce  (Picea  mariana),  which 
occurs  in  the  northern  part  of  the  range  of  the 
red  spruce  and  in  the  Lake  States;  and  white 
spruce  (Picea  canadensis),  which  is  the  princi- 
pal spruce  of  the  Lake  States.  These  species 
are  the  largest  source  of  wood  for  paper  pulp, 
and  also  furnish  all  the  spruce  lumber  manufac- 
tured in  the  East.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  the  spruce  which  is  most  manufactured 
into  lumber  is  Engelmann  spruce  (Picea  engel- 
manni);  while,  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  Sitka 
spruce  (Picea  sitchensis)  is  the  chief  source  of 
spruce  lumber.  Of  all  these  species,  red  spruce 
and  Sitka  spruce  are  by  far  the  most  abundant 
and  important. 

The  wood  of  the  spruces  is  very  light  in  weight, 
soft,  even-grained,  and  easily  worked,  even 
exceeding  white  pine  in  this  respect.  Spruce  is 
stiff  and  strong  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  One 

TABLE  100 

Factory  Uses  of  Spruce 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill    Work    44 

Boxes  and  Crates 42 

Musical   Instruments    4 

Woodenware,  Novelties,  etc 4 

Tanks  and  Silos 1 

Other  Uses    4 

Total    .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


of  the  most  exacting  demands  among  the  indus- 
tries is  that  of  wood  for  piano  sounding  boards ; 
and  for  this  purpose  spruce  has  long  been  the 
chief  supply.  Recently  spruce  has  found  a  new 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  aeroplanes. 

The  factory  uses  reported  for  spruce  without 
distinction  of  species  are  indicated  in  Table  100. 

Eastern  spruce  is  credited  in  the  reports  with 
being  used  in  the  manufacture  of: 

implements 


Agricultural 
Aeroplanes 
Boats 
Boat  oars 
Bowling   alleys 


Broom  handles 

Bungs 

Butter  tubs 

Cable  reels  and  spools 

Cameras 

Canoes 

Car  sheathing 

Crates 

Doors 

Elevator  platforms 

Farm  machinery 

Fiber  board 

Fixtures,  backing 

Fixtures,  linings 

Fixtures,  office 

Fixtures,  store 

Flag  poles 

Flooring 

Furniture   (hidden  parts) 

Guitars 

Hay  presses 

Ice  boxes 

Interior  finish 

Keyboards 

Ladder  sides 


Mandolins 
Match  cases 
Moldings 
Molding  flasks 
Musical  instruments 
Novelties 
Organ  pipes 
Paddles 
Patterns 
Piano  backs 
Piano  benches 
Piano  cases 
Piano  ribs 

Piano  sounding-boards 
Pipe  organs 
Player   actions 

Refrigerators     (inside     parti- 
tions) 
Scaffolding 
Ships 
Shiplap 
Silos 
Skids 
Sleds 
Spars 

Tables    (ironing) 
Tables    (folding) 
Tanks 
Tubs 
Vehicles 
Woodenware 


304  LIMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Sitka  spruce  is  used  for: 

Apparatus  (playground)  Pulleys 

Balusters  (porch)  Refrigerator  rooms 

Baskets  Refrigerators 

Blinds  Ribs   (mandolin) 

Boxes  Ribs   (piano) 

Breadboards  Rims  (guitar) 

Brooders  (poultry)  Sash 

Caskets  Scale  parts 

Cornice  brackets  Siding  (wagon  beds) 

Decking  (boats)  Sounding-boards 

Door  frames  Sounding-boards    (guitar) 

Doors  Spars  (boats) 

Furniture  Store  fronts 

Fixtures  Trunks 

Ironing  boards  Washboards 

Ladders  Wheel  slats   (windmill) 

Organ  parts  Windmill  parts 

Organ  pipes  Window  frames 

Porchwork  Woodenware 

SYCAMORE 

Sycamore  (Platanus  occidentalis)  is  a  tough, 
strong  wood,  difficult  to  split.  It  has  a  beauti- 
ful figure  when  quarter-sawed,  and  would  find 

TABLE  101 

Factory  Uses   of   Sycamore 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 64 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 12 

Mill    Work    7 

Butchers'  Blocks 6 

Woodenware   and  Novelties    2 

Refrigerators  and  Kitchen  Cabinets 1 

Musical   Instruments    1 

Agricultural    Implements    1 

Brooms  and  Carpet-Sweepers   1 

Other  Uses   5 

Total    .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  305 

a  much  larger  use  were  not  the  supply  so  lim- 
ited. 

The  chief  uses  reported  for  sycamore  are  indi- 
cated in  Table  101. 

Sycamore  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manu- 
facture of: 

Barber  poles  Handles 

Barrels   (veneer)  Hoppers  (fruit  and  vegetable) 

Basket  parts  Horses    (merry-go-round) 

Baskets   (fruit)  Ice  boxes 

Baskets   (vegetable)  Interior  finish 

Beds    (folding)  Mandolin  boxes 

Boat  parts   (row)  Meat  blocks 

Boxes  Merry-go-round  parts 

Box  shooks  Packages   (fruit  and  vege- 

Brush  blocks  table) 

Butcher  blocks  Panels 

Cabinet  work  Piano  backs 

Cigar  boxes  Picture  mouldings 

Cooperage  stock  Refrigerators 

Crating  Tobacco  boxes 

•Doors  Trunks 

Fixtures   (office)  Vehicle  bodies 

Flooring  Veneer  cases   (piano) 

Furniture  Washing  machines 

Guitar  bodies 

TAMARACK 

With  the  exception  of  longleaf  pine,  tamarack 
(Larix  laricina)  is  the  heaviest  and  one  of  the 
strongest  and  toughest  softwoods.  It  is  rated 
among  the  more  durable  woods,  and  finds  its 
largest  use  for  general  building  purposes,  and 
especially  for  heavy  timbers. 

Lumber  from  Eastern  tamarack  is  manufac- 
tured chiefly  in  the  Lake  States ;  while  the  West- 
ern tamarack,  or  larch  (Larix  occidentalis),  is 


306  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

produced  chiefly  in  the  region  known  as  fee 
"Inland  Empire" — a  section  of  common  com- 
mercial interests  comprising  western  Montana, 
northern  Idaho,  and  eastern  Washington. 

Larch  is  a  close-grained,  heavy  softwood  of 
moderate  strength  and  stiffness. 

The  government  reports  indicate  that  the  fac- 
tory uses  for  tamarack  and  larch,  without  dis- 
tinction as  to  species,  are  as  shown  in  Table  102. 

TABLE  102 

Factory  Uses  of  Tamarack 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Mill  Work 77 

Tanks  and  Silos 8 

Boxes  and  Crates 6 

Paving  and  Conduits    4 

Car  Construction    1 

Other  Uses   4 

Total    100 

Eastern  tamarack  is  used  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  for: 

Car  construction  Molding 

Boat  floors  Pails 

Boat  keels  Refrigerators 

Boat  stringers  Ship  knees 

Boxes  Silos 

Ceiling  Tanks 

Crating  Tuhs 

Culm  pipe  (mines)  Water  pipes 

Excelsior  Windmills 

Flooring  Woodwool 
Interior  finish 

Western  tamarack  or  larch  is  used  for  general 
building  purposes,  interior  finish,  boat  frames, 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  807 

keels,  ribs,  planking,  and  decking,  door  and  win- 
dow casing,  fruit  and  butter  boxes,  etc. 

TUPELO 

Tupelo  (Nyssa  aquatica)  is  one  of  the  softer 
hardwoods  of  medium  weight,  close-grained  and 
difficult  to  split,  but  with  very  good  working  qual- 
ities. It  grows  chiefly  in  the  cypress  regions, 
and  is  manufactured  and  graded  by  the  same 
interests  as  cypress.  Only  recently  has  tupelo 
come  into  general  notice,  but  its  progress  has 
been  rapid,  as  will  be  seen  from  its  present  fac- 
tory uses  as  indicated  in  Table  103. 

TABLE   103 
Factory  Uses  of  Tupelo 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Boxes  and  Crates 58 

Mill   Work    13 

Tobacco   Boxes    8 

Woodenware  and  Novelties 4 

Sewing  Machines    3 

Laundry  Appliances 3 

Furniture     3 

Agricultural  Implements 1 

Other  Uses    7 

Total    100 

More  detailed  uses  of  tupelo  include : 

Axles  Cigar  boxes 

Balusters  Clothespins 

Baskets  Coffins 

Berry  cups  Crating 

Boxes  Chairs 

Brushes  Excelsior 

Cabinets  Felloes 

Ceiling  Flooring 


308  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

Furniture  Panels   (carriage) 

Hoppers  Spokes 

Hubs  Table  legs 

Interior  finish  Tobacco  boxes 

Kitchen  safes  Trunks 

Lard  dishes  Wagon  bottoms 

Laundry  appliances  Wagon  tongues 

Molding  Washboards 

Musical  instruments  Woodenware 
Ox  yokes 


BLACK  WALNUT 

The  properties  of  black  walnut  (Juglans  nigra) 
are  too  well  known  to  need  detailed  mention. 
Black  walnut  is  valued  for  its  rich  color,  fine 
figure,  and  susceptibility  to  high  polish.  The 
most  prized  effects  are  produced  by  the  careful 
manufacture  of  veneer  from  the  burls  and  ap- 
parent deformities  of  the  tree;  and  raw  mate- 
rial of  this  character  is  so  valuable  as  to  be  sold 
by  the  pound  instead  of  the  ordinary  method  of 
measurement. 

TABLE  104 

Factory  Uses  of  Black  Walnut 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Sewing  Machines   33 

Musical   instruments    21 

Mill  Work    ,. .    19 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 10 

Firearms    7 

Caskets  and  Coffins   2 

Electrical  Machinery  and  Apparatus 2 

Vehicles    2 

Car  Construction   1 

Other  Uses   3 

Total    .         .     .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS 


Considerable  of  the  best  black  walnut  is  ex- 
ported to  Europe  in  log  form.  The  factory  uses 
reported  for  walnut  in  the  United  States  are 
in  the  proportions  indicated  in  Table  104. 

Black  walnut  enters  more  or  less  into  the 
manufacture  of  these  articles: 


Air-gun  stocks 

Altars 

Automobile  bodies 

Barber  chairs 

Benches 

Billiard  cues 

Bookcases 

Brush  backs 

Bureaus 

Cabinet  work 

Canes 

Card  tables 

Carpet-sweepers 

Carvings 

Case  work 

Caskets 

Chairs 

Chair  legs 

China  closets 

Chiffoniers 

Clock  cases 

Coffins 

Couches  (legs) 


Doors 

Electrical  appliances    (bases) 

Embalming  boards 

Fixtures   (exterior  parts) 

Fixtures,  office 

Fixtures,  store 

Fretwood 

Furniture 


Gunstocks 

Handles 

Inlaid  work 

Interior  finish 

Machine  boxes 

Molding 

Novelties 

Organ  cases 

Panels    (veneered) 

Parquetry  flooring 

Patterns 

Pianos 

Piano  actions 

Piano  benches 

Piano  cases 

Piano  players 

Picture  frames 

Pipe  organs 

Sash 

Sewing  machines 

Show  cases 

Sideboards 

Side  tables 

Steering  wheels 

Stools 

Tables 

Tool  boxes 

Umbrella  handles 

Vehicles 

Windshields    (automobile) 

Woodenware 


WILLOW 

The  wood  of  the  willows  which  attain  tree  size 


310  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

is  very  light  and  soft,  and,  while  neither  stiff 
nor  strong,  is  tougher  than  many  heavier  woods. 
Willow  lumber  is  nearly  all  made  from  black 
willow  (Salix  nigra),  and  finds  its  largest  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  boxes  and  crates.  In  bolt 
form,  where  abundant,  willow  is  an  important 
source  of  material  for  the  manufacture  of  ex- 
celsior. Willow  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  baseball  bats,  boats,  furniture  shelving,  wagon 
beds,  and  artificial  limbs. 

YUCCA 

In  the  Southwest,  especially  in  Southern  Cal- 
ifornia, the  yucca  (Yucca  arbor escens)  attains 
real  tree  dimensions,  although  this  plant  would 
not  ordinarily  be  considered  a  tree  at  all.  It 
appears  that  the  equivalent  of  nearly  200,000 
feet  of  lumber  is  annually  manufactured  from 
yucca.  The  wood  is  very  light  in  weight,  fibrous, 
tough,  and,  when  wet,  pliable  and  easily  molded 
into  desired  forms. 

Yucca  finds  its  largest  use  in  the  manufacture 
of  woodenware  and  novelties;  but  a  consider- 
able quantity  is  also  used  in  mill  work  in  Cali- 
fornia, and,  in  that  State,  it  is  used  very  much 
more  than  any  other  material  in  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  limbs,  jackets,  surgeon 's  splints,  and 
corsets. 

MINOR  SPECIES  OF  NATIVE  WOODS 

A  few  of  the  numerous  other  native  woods 
used  to  a  small  extent  include  the  following: 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  311 

Ailanthus,  mountain  ash,  and  silver  bell,  for  boxes  and 
crates;  blue  beech,  catalpa,  and  china  tree,  for  vehicle 
parts;  catalpa,  china  tree,  kalmia,  haw,  mesquite,  mul- 
berry, and  sumac,  for  furniture;  manzanita,  mountain 
lilac,  mountain  mahogany,  and  orange,  for  novelties; 
mulberry,  silver  bell,  and  witch-hazel,  for  millwork. 

Since  there  are  more  than  500  tree  species  in 
the  United  States,  it  is  obvious  that,  so  far  as 
numbers  are  concerned,  only  a  few  of  them  are 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing  pages.  No  species, 
however,  has  been  omitted  which  is  a  consider- 
able source  of  lumber  supply  or  of  much  im- 
portance in  general  commerce.  Many  of  the 
unmentioned  woods  are  used  in  a  small  or  local 
way  for  a  large  number  of  purposes,  among 
which  are  novelties,  turnery,  etc. 

FOREIGN  WOODS 

In  the  aggregate,  the  equivalent  of  about  100 
million  board  feet  of  the  more  costly  woods  is 
used  annually  in  the  factories  of  the  United 
States,  principally  for  the  manufacture  of  fur- 
niture and  for  the  finer,  more  expensive  mill 
work,  as  well  as  for  various  decorative  purposes. 
The  total  quantity  of  each  of  these  woods  im- 
ported is  divided  among  the  various  industries 
in  about  the  proportions  which  are  indicated 
in  Table  105. 

The  only  important  foreign  wood  omitted  from 
this  table  is  Spanish  cedar,  of  which  about  30 
million  feet  is  imported  annually  and  practically 
all  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cigar  boxes. 


312  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE   105 

Factory  Uses  of  Imported  Woods 

TURKISH  BOXWOOD 
Purpose  Per  Cent 

Whips,  Canes,  and  Umbrellas 88 

Firearms    6 

Shuttles,  Spools,  and  Bobbins 5 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    100 

WEST   INDIAN   BOXWOOD 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments.  ...  75 

Shuttles,  Spools  and  Bobbins 12 

Musical  Instruments    8 

Handles    4 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    100 

COCOBOLA 

Handles   75 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments....    23 
Other  Uses   2 

Total    100 

EBONY 

Whips,  Canes,  and  Umbrellas   37 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods   36 

Musical   Instruments    11 

Mill  Work   9 

Brushes    2 

Tobacco  Pipes 2 

Furniture   1 

Other  Uses 2 

Total    .  ...100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  313 

LIGNUM  VITAE 

Furniture    62 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 25 

Pulleys  and  Conveyors    8 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments 4 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    100 

MAHOGANY 

Furniture  and  Fixtures    47 

Musical   Instruments    17 

Mill  Work 14 

Car  Construction    12 

Caskets  and  Coffins   3 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 2 

Vehicles    1 

Other  Uses   4 

Total    100 

PADOUK 

Car  Construction   52 

Mill  Work    24 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 23 

Other  Uses   1 

Total 100 

PRIMA  VERA 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 52 

Mill   Work    32 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 8 

Car  Construction   7 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    .  100 


314  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

ROSEWOOD 

Purpose  Per  Cent 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruments....    46 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 14 

Musical  Instruments    10 

Car  Construction    8 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods i 

Handles    3 

Brushes    3 

Bungs  and  Faucets 2 

Artificial  Limbs    2 

Mill  Work    1 

Carpet-Sweepers    1 

Other  Uses    6 

Total    100 

SATINWOOD 

Mill   Work    50 

Furniture  and  Fixtures    34 

Musical  Instruments    7 

Caskets  and  Coffins   7 

Other  Uses   2 

Total    .  .  .  100 


TEAK 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 83 

Mill   Work    12 

Car  Construction    3 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 1 

Other  Uses   1 

Total    .  ..100 


COMMERCIAL  WOODS  315 

CIRCASSIAN  WALNUT 

Mill   Work    43 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 32 

Musical   Instruments    15 

Firearms    3 

Ship  and  Boat  Building 1 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods 1 

Carpet-Sweepers    1 

Other  Uses   4 

Total    100 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  are  annu- 
ally used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  several  million 
feet  of  foreign  hardwoods,  among  the  more  im- 
portant of  which  are  Japanese  oak  and  birch, 
Siberian  oak,  Philippine  mahogany  and  other 
species,  and  Australian  eucalyptus.  Small  quan- 
tities of  many  other  foreign  woods  are  also  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes. 

Under  normal  conditions,  considerable  pine 
lumber  manufactured  in  northern  Mexico  is 
shipped  across  the  border,  while  a  large  amount 
of  Canadian  white  pine  is  marketed  in  the 
United  States. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS 

nMHE  annual  wood  consumption  in  the 
United  States  takes  from  our  forests 
approximately  23  billion  cubic  feet  of 
wood,  allowing  for  the  waste  which  occurs  in 
logging  and  milling  operations.  In  round  num- 
bers, we  use  yearly  100  million  cords  of  fire- 
wood, 45  billion  feet  of  lumber,  nearly  15  billion 
shingles,  over  a  billion  posts,  poles,  and  fence 
rails,  140  million  cross-ties,  over  2  billion  staves, 
more  than  150  million  sets  of  heading,  nearly 
400  million  barrel  hoops,  3  million  cords  of 
domestic  pulpwood,  165  million  cubic  feet  of 
round  mine  timbers,  over  1,200,000  cords  of 
wood  for  distillation  and  more  than  1,000,000 
cords  of  tanbark. 

LUMBER 

The  manufacture  of  lumber  constitutes  by 
far  the  largest  single  use  of  the  forest.  Big  and 
little,  there  are  nearly  50,000  sawmills  in  the 
United  States.  The  making  of  lumber  and  tim- 
ber products  gives  employment  to  more  labor 
than  any  other  industry  in  the  country;  while, 
in  the  point  of  capital  invested  and  value  of 
output,  the  manufacture  of  these  products  ranks 
third  in  our  great  industries — surpassed  only 
by  meat  packing  and  the  foundry  and  machine 
shop  industries. 

According  to  the  Census  of  1910,  which  was 

316 


FOBEST  PRODUCTS  aiv 

by  far  the  best  canvass  ever  made  of  the  indus- 
try, the  total  lumber  production  in  1909  was 
44,509,761,000  board  feet,  by  48,112  mills. 
Arranged  in  the  rank  of  production,  the  output 
of  the  States  which  cut  over  one  billion  feet 
each,  and  the  number  of  mills  in  operation, 
were  as  indicated  in  Table  106. 

TABLE  106 

Number  and  Output  of  Sawmills  in  the  United  States 
(Census  of  1910) 

No.  of  Million 
States                                                      Sawmills     Board  Feet 

Washington    1,143  3,863 

Louisiana    658  3,552 

Mississippi 1,795  2,573 

North  Carolina 3,307  2,178 

Arkansas 2,060  2,111 

Virginia    3,511  2,102 

Texas 719  2,099 

Wisconsin    1,251  2,025 

Oregon    696  1,899 

Michigan    1,323  1,890 

Alabama    2,188  1,691 

Minnesota    745  1,562 

West  Virginia 1,524  1,473 

Pennsylvania   3,054  1,463 

Georgia   2,083  1,342 

Tennessee    2,643  1,224 

Florida    491  1,202 

California    305  1,144 

Maine    1,243  1,112 

Other  States 7,383  8,005 

Total    48,112  44,510 

As  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  the  present 
annual  lumber  cut  from  the  leading  species  of 
timber,  and  the  States  in  which  each  is  chiefly 
manufactured  are  indicated  in  Table  107. 


318  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

TABLE  107 
Annnal  Lumber  Production  in  the  United  States 


a 

Species 
Yellow  Pine 


Million      Per 
Bd.  Ft.    Cent 

16,000     35.9 


Douglas  Fir  ......    6,000     13.6 

Oak  .............    4,400        9.9 


Northern  Pine 


3,000        6.7 


Eastern  Hemlock  .  . 

2,500 

5.6 

^Western  Yellow  Pine 
Maple   

1,4  0<£ 
1,200 

3.1 
2.7 

Eastern  Spruce   .  .  . 

1,100 

2.5 

Cypress    

1,100 

2.5 

Yellow   Poplar  

800 

1.8 

Red    Gum  

800 

1.8 

650 

1.4 

525 

1.2 

Beech   

475 

1.1 

Birch    

425 

1.0 

^' 

Western  White  Pine 
Basswood   
Cottonwood    

400 
375 
350 

.9 
.8 
.8 

Elm    

326 

.7 

Western   Larch  .... 

300 

.7 

Western    Spruce.  .  . 

300 

.7 

Western   Hemlock  .  . 

300 

.7 

Hickory    

300 

.7 

Ash    

276 

.6 

Western   Cedar.... 

250 

.6 

P^ 

White  Fir   
Sugar  Pine  

Tamarack   

140 
140 
140 
125 

.3 
'     .3 
.3 
.3 

Eastern   Cedar  

125 

.3 

Balsam   Fir  

100 

.2 

Sycamore   

65 

.1 

Walnut    

45 

.1 

Most  Largely  Produced  in 

La.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  N.  C.,  Ala., 

Ark.,  Va.,  Fla.,  Ga.,  S.  C. 
Wash.,  Ore.,  Cal. 
W.   Va.,   Tenn.,   Ky.,   Va., 

Ark.,  Ohio 
Minn.,    Wis.,    Me.,    N.    H., 

Mich. 

Wis.,  Mich.,  Pa.,  W.  Va. 
Cal.,  Ida.,  Wash.,  Ore. 
Mich.,  Wis.,  Pa.,  N.  Y. 
Me.,  W.  Va.,  N.  H.,  Vt. 
La.,  Fla.,  Ga.,  Ark. 
W.    Va.,   Tenn.,   Ky.,   Va.f 

N.  C. 

Ark.,  Miss.,  Tenn.,  La. 
W.Va.,  Pa.,  Va.,  Conn.,  N.C. 
California 
Mich.,  Ind.,   Pa.,   Ohio,  N. 

Y.,  W.  Va. 

Wis.,  Mich.,  Me.,  Vt.,  N.  Y. 
Ida.,  Wash.,  Mont. 
Wis.,  Mich.,  W.  Va.,  N.  Y. 
Miss.,  Ark.,  La.,  Mo. 
Mich.,  Wis.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Mo. 
Mont.,  Ida.,  Wash. 
Wash.,  Ore.,  Col. 
Wash.,  Ore.,  Ida. 
Ark.,  Tenn.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  Ind. 
Ohio,  Ark.,  Ind.,  Tenn.,  Wis. 
Wash.,  Ida.,  Ore.,  Cal. 
Cal.,  Ore.,  Ida. 
California 

La.,  N.   C.,   Ala.,  Va. 
Minn.,  Wis.,  Mich. 
Tenn.,  Va.,  Mich.,  Ala. 
Me.,  Minn.,  Vt.,  Mich. 
Mo.,  Ind.,  Ark.,  Tenn. 
Ohio,  Ind.,  Ky.,  111.,  Mo. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS 


319 


Cherry    

Buckeye    

Willow    

Noble  Fir 

Magnolia 

Locust 

Red  Fir 

Butternut 

Cucumber    

Dogwood    

Red  Alder 

Persimmon   

Hackberry    

Alpine  Fir 

Silverbell    

Other  Woods.  . 


.2 


W.  Va.,  Penn.,  N.  Y.,  Ohio 

Tenn.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C.,  Ky. 

Mississippi 

Oregon 

Louisiana 

Va.,  Penn.,  N.  C. 

California 

Tex.,  Ind.,  Wis. 

W.  Va.,  Va. 

Tenn.,  N.  C. 

Ore.,  Wash. 

Tenn.,  Miss.,  Ark. 

111.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  La. 

Rocky  Mt.  region 


Total 44,550      100 

The  quantity  of  lumber  produced  in  the  four 
leading  regions  since  1850  is  shown  graphically 
in  Fig.  12  (page  320). 

VENEEE 

The  manufacture  of  veneer  has  developed 
greatly  in  the  last  few  years,  and  will  undoubt- 
edly increase  in  the  future,  since  the  uses  for 
thin  lumber  of  this  sort  are  rapidly  expanding. 
While  much  high-class  veneer  is  used  for  furni- 
ture, musical  instruments,  etc.,  there  is  a  grow- 
ing demand  for  heavy  veneer  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  boxes,  crates,  cases,  drawer  bottoms  and 
the  like.  This  explains  the  large  amount  of 
veneer  made  from  such  woods  as  yellow  pine 
and  cottonwood.  According  to  government 
reports,  the  amount  of  native  timber  used  for 
veneer  in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  as  indi- 
cated in  Table  108. 


320 


LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 


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Fig.  12.     Chart  Showing  Amount  of  Lumber  Cut  in  the 
Various  Sections  of  the  United  States  since  1850 

;     SHINGLES 

Closely  connected  with  lumber  production  is 
that  of  shingle  manufacture.  The  Census  of 
1910  reported  the  shingle  output  to  be  as  shown 
in  Table  109. 


Bales    of   Cedar   Shavings   from 
Shingle  Mill 


Norway  Pine  and  Paper  Bird 


Veneered     Door    of    Curly     Birch 

Inlaid    with    White    Holly 

and  Black  Walnut 

Plate  36 — Lumber  and  Its  Uses 


TAJBLE   10& 

Wood  Used  for  Veneer  in  the  United  States 
(Census  of  1910) 

M.  Feet 

Species  (Log  Scale) 

Red  Gum   158,157 

Yellow  Pine 40,324 

Maple    39,812 

Yellow  Poplar    33,812 

Cottonwood 33,149 

White  Oak 33,005 

Birch     27,623 

Tupelo     26,548 

Elm     17,272 

Basswood    11,003 

Beech    10,550 

Red  Oak 9,769 

Spruce    6,271 

Walnut 2,724 

Sycamore    2,548 

Ash 2,356 

Douglas  Fir 2,006 

Chestnut    1,736 

All  Others    2,611 


Total    460,495 

TABLE  109 

Production  of  Shingles  in  the  United  States 
(Census  of  1910) 

Shingles 
Species  (Millions) 

Cedar  (Chiefly  Western) 10,964 

Cypress    1,387 

Yellow  Pine 1,294 

Redwood    507 

White   Pine    283 

Spruce   147 

Chestnut    92 

Hemlock    76 

Western   Pine    69 

Other    .  90 


Total    14,1 

321 


322  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

OTHER  PRODUCTS 

Cross-ties  are  cut  chiefly  from  oak,  yellow 
pine,  Douglas  fir,  cedar,  chestnut,  cypress, 
tamarack,  hemlock,  Western  pine,  and  redwood, 
in  the  order  named,  with  70  per  cent  of  the  total 
supplied  by  oak,  yellow  pine,  and  Douglas  fir. 
Spruce,  hemlock,  and  poplar  form  the  leading 
pulpwoods.  Slack  barrel  staves  and  heads  are 
chiefly  made  from  red  gum,  yellow  pine,  beech, 
elm,  and  maple;  hoops,  from  elm;  tight  barrel 
staves  and  heads,  from  white  oak.  Two-thirds 
of  the  telephone  and  electric  poles  are  of  cedar, 
and  the  rest  chiefly  chestnut,  oak,  pine,  and 
cypress.  Wood  alcohol  is  made  by  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  birch,  beech,  and  maple ;  tur- 
pentine and  rosin,  by  tapping  longleaf  pine  trees 
and  the  distillation  of  the  wood;  and  tannin  is 
obtained  from  hemlock  and  oak  bark  and  chest- 
nut wood. 


THE  TIMBER  SUPPLY 

FOREST  REGIONS 

BOTANISTS  and  foresters  subdivide  the 
United  States  into  five  great  forest 
" regions"  characterized  by  fairly  definite 
forest  types.  These  are  the  Northern,  Central, 
Southern,  Rocky  Mountain,  and  Pacific  regions. 

The  Northern  Forest.  The  Northern  forest 
type  extends  from  Maine  across  New  England, 
New  York,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  to  west- 
ern Minnesota,  with  a  prolongation  down  the 
southern  Appalachians  to  the  northern  edge  of 
Georgia.  Originally  the  coniferous  type  pre- 
dominated in  the  Northern  forests,  and  by  far 
the  most  important  species  was  white  pine. 
Next  to  white  pine,  ranked  hemlock,  which  was 
especially  abundant  in  Pennsylvania,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin;  and  associated  with  these  spe- 
cies was  Norway  pine,  spruce,  cedar,  balsam, 
and  a  large  variety  of  hardwoods,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  maple,  birch,  bass- 
wood,  beech,  ash,  and  elm. 

The  Southern  Forest.  Starting  in  New  Jer- 
sey, and  extending  to  the  south  and  west  over 
practically  all  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States 
to  Texas,  with  a  prolongation  up  from  Texas 
across  Arkansas  to  Southern  Missouri,  is  the 
Southern  type  of  forest,  in  which  the  yellow 
pines  predominate,  with  longleaf  pine  the  most 

323 


324  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

abundant  of  any  single  species.  In  many  local- 
ities within  the  pine  belt,  hardwoods  are  plenti- 
ful, especially  the  gums;  while  in  the  swampier 
regions,  and  particularly  in  Louisiana  and 
Florida,  large  quantities  of  cypress  are  found. 

The  Hardwood  Forest.  Lying  between  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Forest,  and  reaching 
from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Missouri 
river,  is  a  great,  irregular  region  in  which  the 
hardwoods  abound  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
species.  It  was  here  that  the  oaks,  elms,  hick- 
ories, walnut,  yellow  poplar,  sycamore  and 
other  hardwoods  were  originally  most  abundant 
and  attained  their  finest  development.  It  is 
here,  also,  that  the  clearing  of  forests  for  agri- 
cultural development  has  gone  the  farthest, 
since  hardwoods  are  generally  found  upon  the 
richest  types  of  agricultural  soils.  However, 
the  farm  woodlots  and  many  areas  of  larger  size 
in  this  region  still  yield  much  timber  for  local 
use,  and  considerable  for  shipment  to  more 
distant  markets. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Forest.  Passing  over 
the  vast  forestless  area  of  the  prairies  and 
plains,  we  come  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  region, 
with  coniferous  forests  on  most  of  its  higher 
mountain  slopes  and  plateaus.  The  bulk  of  the 
timber  in  these  forests  consists  of  Western 
yellow  pine,  with  other  pines,  firs,  and  spruces, 
and — in  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  region — 
considerable  quantities  of  larch,  Western  hem- 
lock, cedar,  and  Western  white  pine. 


THE  TIMBER  SUPPLY  325 

The  Pacific  Forest.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  are 
found  the  heaviest  stands  of  timber,  and  the 
largest  individual  trees  ever  recorded  in  history 
or  revealed  by  geological  strata.  From  the  sum- 
mits of  the  Cascades  to  the  Pacific  ocean  in 
Oregon  and  Washington,  and  on  the  Coast  range 
and  the  Sierras  of  California,  are  giant  firs, 
cedars,  spruces,  redwoods,  and  pines,  which  for 
many  years  to  come  will  be  the  most  important 
source  of  timber  supply  for  a  large  portion  of 
the  United  States. 

The  forest  regions  are  outlined  in  Plate  37. 

AREA  AND  STAND 

The  best  estimates  indicate  that  the  forest 
areas,  and  the  quantity  of  standing  timber 
available  according  to  present  standards  of  util- 
ization, within  these  five  regions,  are  not  less 
than  the  amounts  shown  in  Table  110. 

TABLE  110 

Forest  Areas  and  Quantity  of  Standing  Timber  in  the 

United  States 

Area     Stumpage 
(Million     (Billion 
Forest  Regions  Acres)        Feet) 

Northern    9Q        __ 

Southern    150  630 

Central    130 

Rocky  Mountain 100  300 

Pacific    80  1,300 


Total    650  2,800 

As  nearly  as  can  be  estimated  on  the  basis  of 
present  knowledge,   our  2,800  billion  feet  of 


326  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

standing  timber  is  divided  among  the  various 
species  as  indicated  in  Table  111. 

TABLE   111 

Quantity  of  Standing  Timber  of  Various  Species 

Species  Billion  Feet 

Douglas  Fir    650 

Western   Pine    475 

Southern  Pine f 375 

Western   Hemlock    150 

Redwood    100 

Western  Cedar    75 

. Sugar   Pine 60 

Othern  Western  Softwoods 85 

Cypress    40 

Other  Eastern  Softwoods 190 

Hardwoods 600 

Total    2,800 

FOEEST  OWNERSHIP 

Three  main  types  of  ownership  hold  our  550 
million  acres  of  forest  land.  These  are  public 
forests,  farm  woodlots,  and  the  larger  private 
holdings.  Public  forests  include  the  State  and 
National  Forests  and  Parks,  and  timber  on  the 
unreserved  public  domain  and  on  military  and 
Indian  reservations. 

The  National  Forests  aggregate  about  160  mil- 
lion acres,  and  are  chiefly  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain and  Pacific  States.  They  were  created  by 
the  withdrawal  of  public  land  from  private  entry 
and  sale.  Within  the  last  few  years,  however, 
the  National  Government  has  entered  upon  the 
policy  of  purchasing  timber  lands  in  the  Eastern 
mountains,  where  forest  growth  is  considered 


THE  TIMBER  SUPPLY  327 

necessary  for  the  protection  of  watersheds  at 
the  heads  of  navigable  streams.  Under  this 
policy,  extensive  purchases  of  forest  land 
(chiefly  cut  over)  are  being  made  in  the  White 
Mountains  and  the  southern  Appalachians. 

The  principal  state  forests  are  in  the  East. 
New  York  has  approximately  1,500,000  acres  in 
its  State  Park.  Pennsylvania  has  something 
like  a  million  acres  in  forest  reserves;  Wiscon- 
sin, about  400,000  acres;  and  a  few  other  States, 
comparatively  small  forest  reservations. 

The  farm  woodlots  amount  to  about  190  mil- 
lion acres.  As  their  name  implies,  these  tracts 
are  chiefly  the  smaller  areas  of  timber  land 
owned  by  the  fanners  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States.  They  average,  perhaps,  30  acres 
in  area,  and,  while  not  a  large  source  of  com- 
mercial timber  supply,  are  very  important  for 
local  use.  The  Census  placed  the  value  of  their 
output  in  1909  at  195  million  dollars. 

The  third  type  of  forest  ownership  is  that  of 
the  larger  private  holdings,  amounting  to  about 
200  million  acres,  and  contains  at  least  75  per 
cent  of  the  merchantable  standing  timber  in  the 
country.  Naturally,  these  holdings  in  general 
contain  the  best  of  the  standing  timber  in  the 
United  States,  since  private  capital  always 
seeks  the  best  investment. 

A  TIMBER  FAMINE? 

There  has  been  much  talk  to  the  effect  that 
a  timber  famine  is  impending  in  the  United 


328  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

States.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not  depends 
entirely  upon  what  is  meant  by  the  term 
"famine."  If  it  means  that  our  timber  supply 
will  be  completely  exhausted  in  30,  40,  50,  or 
even  100  years,  then  we  can  say  positively  that 
there  will  be  no  timber  famine.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  term  means  that,  compared  with  pres- 
ent conditions,  our  supply  of  standing  timber 
will  be  reduced,  and  the  price  of  lumber  higher 
within  the  lifetime  of  men  now  living,  then  we 
can  say  with  equal  truthfulness  that  there  will 
be  a  timber  famine.  The  question  is  purely  a 
relative  one.  Up  to  the  present  time,  timber 
of  almost  every  species  and  grade  has  been 
cheap  and  abundant.  In  the  future,  some  kinds 
will  be  scarcer,  and  some  grades  higher  priced. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  will  be  a  comparatively 
large  supply  of  the  common  grades  of  building 
lumber  for  many  years,  and  the  competition  of 
other  materials  will  be  a  strong  factor  in  hold- 
ing prices  to  a  level  which  will  make  most  forest 
products  available  for  a  multitude  of  purposes. 
Such  data  as  can  be  secured  indicate  that  the 
amount  of  timber  now  standing  in  the  United 
States,  estimated  at  2,800  billion  feet,  is  per- 
haps one-half  the  quantity  that  existed  in  the 
country  before  clearing  for  settlement  and  cut- 
ting for  lumber  began.  Our  annual  consump- 
tion of  sawed  timber  products  now  averages 
approximately  50  billion  feet  a  year.  If  the 
stand  is  2,800  billion  feet,  it  furnishes  cutting 
for  56  years  at  the  present  rate.  As  a  matter 


THE  TIMBER  SUPPLY  329 

of  fact,  however,  more  than  2,800  billion  feet  of 
lumber  will  be  sawed  from  the  present  stand  of 
timber.  In  some  regions  there  will  also  be  no 
inconsiderable  increment  through  natural  repro- 
duction or  growth.  Our  annual  per  capita  con- 
sumption of  lumber,  which  has  been  ranging 
close  to  500  board  feet,  will  eventually  drop 
somewhere  near  to  the  German  level  of  only  48 
board  feet.  This  will  greatly  reduce  the  demand 
upon  our  remaining  supply  of  timber,  and  help 
make  it  sufficient  for  all  legitimate  needs. 

These  statements  do  not  imply  that  there 
should  be  any  lack  of  effort  to  protect  our  forest 
resources.  On  the  contrary,  they  require  the 
expenditure  of  great  sums  of  money  and  years 
of  patient  care  to  bring  them  into  proper  con- 
dition. The  conservation  of  our  natural 
resources  means  making  the  best  possible  pres- 
ent use  of  them,  while  safeguarding  their  repro- 
ductive power  for  the  future.  Fortunately,  our 
forest  resources  are  easily  reproduceable.  The 
question  of  forestry  is  largely  one  of  the  best 
utilization  of  land  surface.  Land  which  will 
yield  the  highest  return  under  agriculture  will, 
through  economic  development,  find  its  use  in 
agriculture.  Land  which  will  yield  the  best 
return  when  forested — and  this  includes  land 
chiefly  incapable  of  ordinary  forms  of  cultiva- 
tion—will ultimately  be  the  source  of  our  tim- 
ber supply. 

So  far  as  present  knowledge  permits  the 
classification,  it  is  believed  that  our  forest  area 


330  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

of  550  million  acres  contains  200  million  acres 
of  practically  mature  timber;  250  million  acres 
partially  cut  and  burned  over,  on  which  there  is 
sufficient  natural  reproduction  to  insure  a  fair 
second  growth;  and,  finally,  100  million  acres 
so  severely  cut  and  burned  that,  unless  supple- 
mented by  planting,  there  will  be  no  succeeding 
forest  of  commercial  value. 

Our  potential  forest  area  is  large  enough  to 
supply  all  the  timber  of  every  kind  that  we  need 
if  it  is  rightly  handled.  Here  is  a  field  which 
for  years  to  come  will  afford  great  opportunity 
for  the  activities  of  both  statesmen  and  forest- 
ers. Although  four-fifths  of  the  present  timber 
supply  is  privately  owned,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  100  years  hence  the  bulk  of  the  timber  then 
existing  will  be  in  public  forests.  Because  of 
the  long-time  investment  required,  the  hazard 
involved,  and  the  relatively  low  interest  rate 
obtained  from  forestry,  private  capital  is  not 
likely  to  engage  in  timber  growing  on  a  large 
scale.  This  makes  it  necessary  that  eventually 
the  National  and  State  Governments  shall 
become  the  more  important  timber  owners. 


PERMANENT    ADVANTAGES   OF 
WOOD 

rTlHE  clever  and  persistent  advertising  given 
to  many  substitutes  for  wood  and  timber 
might  lead  the  reader  to  think  that  in  a 
few  years  lumber  will  be  either  unnecessary  or 
unobtainable.  Wooden  sidewalks  went  out  of 
fashion  long  ago;  wooden  buildings  and  shingle 
roofs  are  not  permitted  in  restricted  sections  of 
cities ;  boxes  of  paper  and  fiber  are  used  in  place 
of  boxes  formerly  made  of  boards;  steel  passen- 
ger and  freight  cars  and  concrete  culverts  and 
bridges  are  common;  while  structures  of  con- 
crete, brick,  or  tile  are  found  on  the  farms,  and 
steel  row-boats  glide  about  the  pleasure  parks. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  wood  has  been  so  cheap  and 
abundant  in  the  United  States  that  it  has  been 
used  for  a  multitude  of  temporary  purposes, 
and  often  for  purposes  for  which  other  prod- 
ucts are  better  suited. 

Another  stage  of  economic  development  has 
now  been  reached.  Wood  is  taking  its  place  as 
one  of  the  finer  materials,  and  the  coarser  uses 
are  being  given  over  to  coarser  products.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  have  a  relatively  larger 
supply  of  wood  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 
unquestionably  the  most  suitable  material.  No 
doubt,  also,  some  of  the  present  use  of  substi- 
tutes is  a  temporary  fad,  and  public  favor  will 

33X 


332  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

eventually  return  sensibly  to  the  earlier  mate- 
rial. 

The  permanent  advantages  offered  by  wood 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

(1)  Its  general  availability.    Wood  is  a  natural  prod- 
uct more  widely  distributed  and  more  easily  obtainable 
than    any    other   structural   material    which   the    earth 
affords.    The  multiplicity  of  purposes  for  which  it  is 
used  is  surprising,  even  to  those  best  informed  upon  the 
subject.    A  recent  study  of  the  wood-using  industries 
of  Illinois  showed  that  in  the  factories  of  that  State 
white  oak  is  used  for  276  distinct  purposes;  that  hard 
maple  has  164  functions  in  these  same  factories;  that 
birch  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  154  different  articles ; 
and  that  red  oak,  longleaf  pine,  red  gum,  yellow  poplar, 
white  pine,  and  basswood  are  each  used  for  100  to  140 
different  purposes.    Moreover,  the  new  uses  developed 
for  wood  yearly  through  discovery  and  invention,  offset 
to  some  extent  the  lessened  demand  because  of  substi- 
tutes in  other  directions.     For  example,  the  use  of  wood 
block  paving  is  rapidly  increasing. 

(2)  Wooden  structures  can  be  altered  and  moved,  or 
built  over,  more  easily  and  cheaply  than  can  structures 
of  any  other  material. 

(3)  Wood  is  very  strong  for  its  weight,  compared  with 
other  structural  materials.     The  average  weight  of  the 
woods  ordinarily  used  is  some  30  pounds  per  cubic  foot; 
that  of  iron  and  steel  is  14  to  15  times  as  much.    This 
is  a   great  advantage  in  handling.     A  bar  of  hickory 
greatly  surpasses  in  tensile  strength  a  bar  of  steel  of  the 
same  weight  and  length.     Similarly,  a  block  of  hickory 
or  longleaf  pine  will  sustain  a  much  greater  weight  in 
compression  than  a  block  of  wrought  iron  of  the  same 
height   and  weight.     Indeed,   practically   any   piece   of 
sound,  straight-grained,  dry  wood  is  stronger  than  steel, 
weight  for  weight.     Moreover,  wood  will  sustain  a  far 


PERMANENT  ADVANTAGES  OF  WOOD   333 

greater  distortion  of  shape  than  metal,  without  suffering 
permanent  injury;  while,  of  course,  no  such  distortion 
can  be  sustained  by  either  concrete  or  clay  products. 

(4)  Wood  is  easily  worked  with  common  tools,  while 
to   work   the   metals   requires  special  tools   and  much 
power  and  time.     Anyone  with  saw  and  plane  and  auger 
can  build  a  structure  of  wood;  an  ironworker  is  a  skilled 
mechanic  whose  services  come  high. 

(5)  Wood  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat  and  electricity, 
as  compared  with  metal;  and  of  moisture,  as  compared 
with  ordinary  concrete  and  brick.     These  are  points  for 
serious  consideration  in  home  building.     They  also  ex- 
plain why  we  prefer  to  sit  on  wooden  seats,  work  at 
wooden  desks,  and  eat  at  wooden  tables. 

(6)  Wood  does  not  contract  and  expand  with  changes 
of  temperature,  while  its  tendency  to  shrink  and  swell 
with  atmospheric  conditions  can  be  completely  overcome 
by  proper  seasoning  and  painting;  hence  wood  can  be 
made  to  "stay  where  it  is  put." 

(7)  Wood  has  a  varied  and  beautiful  figure  with  which 
no  other  material  can  hope  to  compete,  for  furniture, 
house  trim,  and  general  decorative  purposes.     It  gives 
a  comfortable,  homey  atmosphere  that  can  be  obtained 
in  no  other  way. 

(8)  Wood  offers  a  combination  of  strength,  tough- 
ness, and  elasticity  not  possessed  by  any  other  material. 
Imagine,  if  one  can,  a  base  ball  bat,  a  golf  club,  or  an 
ax  handle  of  anything  but  wood. 

No  matter  how  great  may  be  the  inroads  of 
substitutes,  wood  will  continue  to  be  an  essen- 
tial component  of  articles  of  necessity,  of  lux- 
ury, and  of  sport.  We  shall  always  have  it  with 
us,  and  such  increase  in  its  cost  as  may  be 
brought  about  by  natural  causes  will  only  serve 
to  make  the  many  intrinsic  qualities  of  wood 
more  highly  appreciated. 


SOURCES    OF    INFORMATION 
ABOUT  TIMBER 

THE  general  public  has  little  idea  of  our 
timber  supply,  and  even  the  manufactur- 
ers and  users  of  forest  products  have  no 
conception  of  the  abundance  of  information  that 
can  be  obtained  simply  for  the  asking.  The 
Forest  Service  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  has  for  many  years  collected 
information  upon  the  forest  resources  of  the 
United  States,  and  upon  the  properties  and  uses 
of  wood,  which  is  freely  given  to  all  inquirers. 
Moreover,  the  several  associations  of  lumber 
manufacturers  throughout  the  country  freely 
supply  information  upon  their  own  particular 
products. 

ASSOCIATIONS  OF  LUMBEE 
MANUFACTURERS 

The  more  important  of  the  associations  of 
lumber  manufacturers,  together  with  their  head- 
quarters and  the  woods  with  which  they  deal, 
are  given  on  page  38.  In  addition  to  setting- 
standards  for  lumber  grades  and  sizes,  these 
associations  are  valuable  sources  of  information 
upon  trade  customs  and  the  uses  of  lumber. 
They  are  not  selling  organizations;  but  an 
inquiry  directed  to  them  will  promptly  bring 

334 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  335 

a  reply  stating  where  and  of  whom  any  given 
product  may  be  purchased.  Several  of  the  asso- 
ciations conduct  extensive  advertising  cam- 
paigns to  increase  the  demand  for  their  prod- 
ucts; and  from  them  the  prospective  timber 
user  may  obtain  a  great  deal  of  interesting  infor- 
mation put  up  in  attractive  form,  as  well  as 
samples  of  the  various  woods,  from  which  their 
quality  and  structure  may  be  judged. 

THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  National  Forests  contain  one-fifth  of  the 
present  timber  supply  of  the  United  States,  and 
will  become  increasingly  important  as  time  goes 
on,  since  they  are  so  managed  as  to  insure  a 
permanent  timber  crop.  All  timber  which  can 
be  cut  from  the  National  Forests  without 
impairing  watershed  protection,  or  a  future 
crop  of  timber,  is  freely  offered  for  sale.  The 
location  of  these  forests  is  indicated  on  the  map 
in  Plate  38.  The  magnitude  of  the  government 
timber  holdings,  and  their  potential  supply  of 
forest  products,  are  but  little  appreciated  by 
the  general  public.  Every  forest  is  in  charge 
of  local  officers,  who  execute  the  regulations  as 
to  timber  cutting,  stock  grazing,  etc.,  and  among 
whose  chief  duties  is  the  protection  of  the  tim- 
ber from  fire. 

The  National  Forests  are  divided  into  six  main 
groups  for  administrative  purposes.  Inquiries 
concerning  them  may  be  addressed  in  each  case 
to  the  District  Forester  nearest  to  the  locality 


336  LXTMBEE  AND  ITS  USES 

in  question.  The  district  offices  are  at  the  fol- 
lowing points :  Missoula,  Mont. ;  Denver,  Colo. ; 
Albuquerque,  N.  M.;  Ogden,  Utah;  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.;  and  Portland,  Ore. 

FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY 

At  Madison,  Wis.,  the  Forest  Service  oper- 
ates, in  co-operation  with  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  a  large  and  completely  equipped 
laboratory  in  which  are  carried  on  many  inves- 
tigations and  a  great  deal  of  research  relating 
to  the  properties  and  uses  of  commercial  woods. 

Without  going  into  details,  it  can  be  said  that 
the  laboratory  is  thoroughly  equipped  with  all 
the  machinery  and  scientific  appliances  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  the  following  lines  of  investiga- 
tion, as  well  as  several  others: 

Mechanical  Properties  of  Timber 

Mechanical  tests  of  timber  are  highly  valuable  to  engi- 
neers, manufacturers,  and  other  users  of  wood,  since 
they  enable  the  man  who  specifies  timber  for  a  partic- 
ular purpose  to  know  exactly  the  properties  of  the 
material  he  is  dealing  with. 

The  first  series  of  mechanical  tests  is  upon  small,  clear 
sticks  of  all  the  leading  species,  which  gives  a  reliable 
basis  for  the  comparison  of  their  strength,  weight,  and 
other  properties. 

The  second  series  of  tests  is  upon  timbers  of  the  qual- 
ity and  sizes  commonly  used  in  bridges  and  general 
building  construction.  The  purpose  of  these  tests  is  to 
furnish  engineers  and  architects  with  information  which 
may  be  safely  used  in  the  design  of  timber  structures, 
and  to  establish  a  correct  basis  for  the  grading  of  large 
timbers  according  to  their  mechanical  properties. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  337 

Another  series  of  tests  is  upon  axles,  spokes,  cross- 
arms,  poles,  and  other  manufactured  articles,  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstrating  the  fitness  of  various  species 
and  grades  of  material  for  these  uses. 

The  fourth  series  of  mechanical  tests  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  effect  of  preservative  treatments, 
methods  of  seasoning,  fireproofing,  and  similar  processes, 
upon  the  properties  of  wood. 

Physical  Properties  of  Timber 

A  knowledge  of  the  physical  properties  of  wood  is 
necessary  in  a  large  number  of  industries,  and  essential 
to  the  investigation  of  problems  relating  to  the  season- 
ing and  preserving  of  timber.  The  physical  properties 
of  wood  which  are  given  especial  attention  at  the  Madi- 
son laboratory  include  density,  shrinkage,  heat  conduc- 
tivity, and  ability  to  absorb  water  and  other  liquids. 
The  seasoning  of  timber  is  probably  the  most  important 
single  step  in  the  transformation  of  wood  into  usable 
form,  and  much  material  is  annually  lost  because  of 
poor  seasoning  methods.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Serv- 
ice investigations  to  assist  in  the  introduction  of  better 
methods  of  seasoning ;  and  much  has  been  accomplished, 
especially  in  the  devising  of  a  scientific  dry-kiln. 

Another  important  line  of  study  is  that  of  the  relation 
of  the  structure  of  wood  to  its  physical  properties.  This 
is  a  subject  upon  which  there  is  far  too  little  information. 
For  example:  Two  pieces  of  white  oak  of  apparently 
like  quality,  from  adjacent  trees,  were  recently  received 
at  Madison.  So  far  as  could  be  determined  by  all  ordi- 
nary means,  the  two  pieces  should  have  been  of  equal 
strength;  yet,  when  tested,  one  piece  was  found  to  be 
twice  as  strong  as  the  other.  There  seemed  to  be  no 
explanation  for  this  peculiar  result  until  sections  of  the 
two  pieces  of  wood  were  put  under  the  microscope,  when 
it  was  quickly  discovered  that  the  fibers  of  the  stronger 
piece  were  twice  as  long  as  the  fibers  of  the  weaker 


338  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

piece.  This  was  a  peculiarity  of  the  growth  of  an  indi- 
vidual tree,  just  as  one  boy  of  a  family  may  be  stronger 
than  another,  although  the  two  are  reared  under  exactly 
the  same  conditions. 

Wood  Preservation 

The  statisticians  say  that  126,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
wood  were  given  preservative  treatment  in  1912;  so 
there  is  no  need  to  discuss  the  importance  of  a  thorough 
understanding  of  timber-treating  materials  and  the  proc- 
esses by  which  they  are  applied.  The  work  of  the  Serv- 
ice laboratory  along  this  line  has  already  been  very 
extensive,  and  recently  it  has  gone  a  step  further  to 
include  a  study  of  methods  by  which  wood  may  be  ren- 
dered fireproof.  Legislation  against  wood  as  a  building 
material  in  cities  is  becoming  so  general  that  it  will  be 
completely  banished  from  many  places  where  it  is  most 
useful  and  economical  unless  a  method  can  be  devised 
of  making  wood  fireproof  at  reasonable  cost. 

Co-Operation  with  the  Public 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  to 
secure  as  fully  as  possible  the  co-operation  of  the  indus- 
tries most  directly  concerned  with  the  problems  under 
investigation.  In  some  cases,  where  the  resulting  work 
is  of  much  value  to  the  co-operating  firm,  a  charge  to 
cover  part  of  the  cost  is  made  by  the  Service;  in  other 
cases,  where  the  investigations  are  of  an  experimental 
nature  and  of  general  value,  the  services  of  the  labora- 
tory are  entirely  free.  At  all  times,  the  laboratory  fur- 
nishes, either  by  letter  or  through  its  publications,  much 
useful  information  upon  a  wide  variety  of  subjects. 

The  officers  in  charge  of  the  laboratory  are 
of  the  highest  type  of  public  servants  whom  it 
is  always  a  pleasure  to  meet  or  to  correspond 
with.  Any  manufacturer  of  forest  products  or 
consumer  of  wood  who  has  difficulty  of  any  kind 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  339 

in  the  handling  of  his  material,  will  find  it  worth 
while  to  lay  his  problems  before  the  Forest 
Service  experts.  The  chances  are  that  he  will 
get  help,  and  get  it  promptly. 

FOREST  SERVICE  PUBLICATIONS 

Questions  relating  to  the  quantity,  kind,  and 
distribution  of  the  timber  supply  of  the  United 
States,  to  the  annual  output  of  lumber  and  other 
forest  products,  to  forest  planting,  to  forest 
management,  and  to  the  National  Forests,  should 
be  directed  to  the  United  States  Forest  Serv- 
ice, Washington,  D.  C.  Such  inquiries  always 
receive  prompt  and  courteous  attention.  More- 
over, the  following  publications  of  special  inter- 
est to  the  users  of  forest  products  can  be 
obtained  from  the  Government  Printing  Office  at 
the  nominal  price  mentioned. 

Eemittance  should  be  made  to  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.,  by 
postal  money  order,  express  order,  or  New  York 
draft.  If  currency  is  sent,  it  will  be  at  sender's 
risk. 

Postage  stamps,  foreign  money,  uncertified 
checks,  defaced  or  smooth  coins,  will  positively 
not  be  accepted. 

Forest  Service  Bulletins 

No. 
10.     Timber.     Elementary  discussion  of  characteristics 

and  properties  of  wood.     lOc. 

13.     Timber  Pines  of   Southern  United   States.     With 
discussion  of  structure  of  their  wood.    50c. 


340  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

17.     Check  List  of  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States, 

their  Names  and  Ranges.     15c. 
33.     Western  Hemlock.    30c. 

36.  Woodsman's  Handbook.     25c. 

37.  Hardy  Catalpa.     1,  Hardy  catalpa  in  commercial 

plantations;  2,  Diseases  of  hardy  catalpa.     40c. 

40.  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.     20c. 

41.  Seasoning  of  Timber.     25c. 

42.  Woodlots.    Handbook  for  owners  of  woodlands  in 

southern  New  England.     15c. 

50.  Cross-Tie  Forms  and  Rail  Fastenings.  With  spe- 
cial reference  to  treated  timbers.  15c. 

58.  Red  Gum.  With  discussion  of  mechanical  proper- 
ties of  red  gum  wood.  15c. 

64.  Loblolly  Pine  in  Eastern  Texas.  With  special  ref- 
erence to  production  of  cross-ties.  5c. 

70.  Effect  of  Moisture  upon  Strength  and  Stiffness  of 
Wood.  15c. 

73.  Grades  and  Amount  of  Lumber  Sawed  from  Yel- 
low Poplar,  Yellow  Birch,  Sugar  Maple,  and 
Beech.  lOc. 

75.     California  Tanbark  Oak.     15c. 

78.    Wood  Preservation  in  the  United  States.     lOc. 

80.  Commercial  Hickories.     15c. 

81.  Forests  of  Alaska.    25c. 

82.  Protection  of  Forests  from  Fire.     15c. 

83.  Forest  Resources  of  the  World.     lOc. 

84.  Preservative  Treatment  of  Poles.    15c. 
88.    Properties  and  Uses  of  Douglas  Fir.     15c. 

95.    Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the  United  States. 

Part  I — Cedars,  Cypresses,  and  Sequoias.     lOc. 
99.     Uses  of  commercial  woods  of  United  States.    Part 

II— Pines.    15c. 

104.  Principles  of  Drying  Lumber  at  Atmospheric  Pres- 

sure.   With  humidity  diagram.     5c. 

105.  Wood  Turpentines.    15c. 

106.  Wood-Using    Industries  and  National    Forests  of 

Arkansas.    5c. 

107.  Preservation  of  Mine  Timbers.     lOc. 

108.  Tests  of  Structural  Timbers.     20c. 

115.  Mechanical  Properties  of  Western  Hemlock.     15c. 

116.  Possibilities  of  Western  Pines  as  Sources  of  Naval 

Stores.     lOc. 

117.  Forest  Fires.     lOc. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  341 

118.     Prolonging  Life  of  Cross-Ties.     15c. 
122.     Mechanical  Properties  of  Western  Larch.     lOc. 
126.    Experiments  in  Preservative  Treatment  of  Red-Oak 
and  Hard-Maple  Cross-Ties.    20c. 


Forest  Service  Circulars 
No. 
36.    Forest  Service,  What  It  Is,  and  How  It  Deals  with 

Forest  Problems.     5c. 
40.    Utilization  of  Tupelo.     5c. 
46.    Holding    Force    of    Railroad    Spikes    in    Wooden 

Ties.    5c. 

102.    Production  of  Red  Cedar  for  Pencil  Wood.    5c. 
111.    Prolonging  Life  of  Mine  Timbers.     5c. 
132.     Seasoning  and  Preservative  Treatment  of  Hemlock 

and  Tamarack  Cross-Ties.     5c. 

136.  Seasoning  and  Preservative  Treatment  of  Arbor 
Vitae  Poles.  5c. 

140.  What  Forestry  Has  Done.    5c. 

141.  Wood  Paving  in  the  United  States.    5c. 

142.  Tests  of  Vehicle  and  Implement  Woods.    5c. 

146.  Experiments  with  Railway  Cross-Ties.     5c. 

147.  Progress  in  Chestnut  Pole  Preservation.     5c. 

151.     Preservative    Treatment    of    Loblolly    Pine    Cross- 

Arms.    5c. 

164.    Properties  and  Uses  of  Southern  Pines.    5c. 
166.     Timber  Supply  of  the  United  States.    5c. 
177.    Wooden  and  Fiber  Boxes.     5c. 
179.     Utilization  of  California  Eucalyptus.     5c. 
187.    Manufacture  and  Utilization  of  Hickory.    5o. 
189.     Strength  Values  for  Structural  Timbers.     5c. 

192.  Prevention  of  Sap  Stain  in  Lumber.    5c. 

193.  Mechanical  Properties  of  Redwood.    5c. 

194.  Progress  Report  on  Wood-Paving  Experiments  in 

Minneapolis.     5c. 

200.  Absorption  of  Creosote  by  Cell  Walls  of  Wood. 
Forest  Products  Laboratory  Series.  5c. 

206.  Commercial  Creosotes.  With  special  reference  to 
protection  of  wood  from  decay.  Forest  Prod- 
ucts Laboratory  Series.  lOc. 

210.  Yield  and  Returns  of  Blue  Gum,  Eucalyptus,  in 

California.    5c. 

211.  Greenheart.    5c. 


342  LUMBER  AND  ITS  USES 

212.  Circassian  Walnut.     5c. 

213.  Mechanical   Properties    of   Woods    Grown   in    the 

United    States.      Forest    Products    Laboratory 
Series.     5c. 

214.  Tests  of  Packing  Boxes  of  Various  Forms.    Forest 

Products  Laboratory  Series.     5c. 

There  is  no  reason  why  any  person  who 
intends  to  use  wood  for  any  purpose  may  not 
learn  promptly  and  authoritatively  the  best 
wood  to  use,  and  where  to  get  it,  if  he  will  take 
the  trouble  to  address  a  letter  to  either  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  or  to  the  lumber 
associations  mentioned  in  this  book. 


INDEX 


Advantages  of  wood 331 

Aeroplanes,  Wood  used  for  223 
Agricultural      implements, 

Wood  used  for 177 

Air-drying    76,     78 

Alder,  Red,  Factory  uses. .  227 
American  Society  for  Test- 
ing   Materials,     Struc- 
tural standards 64 

Apple,  Factory  uses  of. . .  227 
Artificial  limbs,  Wood  used  223 

Ash,  Factory  uses  of 229 

Species  of  228 

Aspen,  Species  and  uses  of  231 
Associations     of     lumber 

manufacturers!    38,334 

Athletic  goods,  Wood  used  204 
Automobiles,  Lumber  used  200 


Bobbins,  Wood  used  for. . .  195 
Boot    and    shoe    findings, 

Wood  used  for 192 

Borers,   Protection   from..     90 

Boxes,   Wood   for 170 

Boxwood,      West      Indian, 

Factory  uses  of 312 

Breaking  strength  of  wood    16 
Bridge   timbers,    Specifica- 
tions for  68 

Brooms,  Lumber  used  for.  221 
Brushes,  Wood  used  for. .  209 
Buckeye,  Factory  uses  of. .  241 
Building  construction,  Gen- 
eral, Wood  for 167 

Bulletins    224,339 

Bungs,  Wood  used  for 206 

Burls    71 

Butcher  blocks,  Wood  for.  215 
Butternut,  Factory  uses  of  242 


Balm  of  Gilead,  Uses  of. . . 
Basswood,  Factory  uses  of 

Beech,  Factory  uses  of 

Beech  flooring,  Grading  of 
Bending  strength  of  wood. 
Birch,  Species  and  uses  of 
Birch  flooring,  Grading  of 
Black  gum,  Factory  uses  of 
Black  walnut,  Factory  uses 

Blocks,  Paving   

See  Pavements,  Block 

Bluing  of  timber 

Boards,  Standard  sizes  of. 
Boat  building,  Lumber  for 


232 

232      Canes,  Wood  used  for 220 

234  Car  construction,   Lumber 

131  used   for   173 

16  Carpet-sweepers*     Lumber 

236  used   for    221 

131  Case-hardening    of    timber    81 

263  Caskets,  Lumber  used  for  184 

308  Catalpa,  Factory  uses  of. .  311 

121      Cedar,  Spanish   311 

Cedar,  Species  and  factory 

90  uses   of    243 

54  Ceiling,  Standard  Sizes  of    46 

182       Cells,    Wood    10 

343 


344 


INDEX 


Checks,  Defined    71 

Cherry,  Factory  uses  of. .  248 
Chestnut,  Factory  uses  of.  249 

Circassian    walnut 315 

Clocks,  Lumber  used  for. .  216 
Cocobola,  Factory  uses  of  312 
Coffins,  Lumber  used  for.  184 

Commercial  woods 226 

Conduits,  Lumber  for  190,  191 
Conveyors,  Lumber  for. . .  201 

Cooperage   322 

Cost  of  building  with  dif- 
ferent materials  162 

Cost  of  lumber,  see  Prices 

Cottonwood    251 

Crack  filling   94 

Crates,  Wood  for 170 

Creosote     as     a     preserva- 
tive     85,    92 

Creosote  block  pavement.  126 
Creosoting  Plants  in  U.  S..  85 

Cross-grains    71 

Crushing  strength 20,     21 

Cucumber,  Factory  uses  of  253 

Culls    34,     70 

Cypress,  Factory  uses  of.  253 


Decay    83,     84 

Defects 60,  64,     65 

Location  of 73 

Dense  wood,  Definition  of    73 

Diagonal  grain  71 

Dimension,  Sizes  of 54,     55 

Dogwood,  Factory  uses  of  256 

Douglas  fir,   Defined 67 

Factory  uses  of   256 

Grading  rules   63 

Dowels,  Wood  used  for 210 

Driers    94 

Drop  siding,  Sizes  of 49 

Drying,  see  Seasoning 
Durability   of  woods,,, 83,    92 


Ebony,  Factory  uses  of  ..  312 

Elasticity  of  woods 23,    24 

Electrical    machinery    and 

apparatus,  Lumber  for  208 

Elevators,  Lumber  for 211 

Elm    257 

Enameling,  see  Paints 

Eucalyptus    260 

Excelsior,  Wood  used  for.  186 


F 


Factory  uses  of  woods 226 

Faucets,  Wood  used  for..  206 
Fence-posts,     Economy     of 

treating    91 

Figure  of  wood 9 

Fillers,  Paste  and  liquid..     95 

Fillers,    Pavement 128 

Finish,  Sizes  of.. 51,    52 

Finishes  for  woodwork,  see 
Paints  and  stains 

Finishing  floors 

97,  134,  140,  143,  144 

Fir 261 

Firearms,  Lumber  used  for  222 

Fireproof  ing  of  wood 150 

Fire-retardant    paints. . .   153 
Impregnating  with  chem- 
icals     152,  156 

Fire-resistance  of  wood . . .  147 
Flasks,  Lumber  used  for.  205 

Floor  finishes 

. .  .97,  119,  134,  143, 144, 146 
Flooring,  Amount  needed. .  138 

Flooring,  Sizes  of 44,  137 

Floors,   Hardwood    130 

Douglas   fir   floors 143 

Finishing     yellow     pine 
and  Douglas  fir  floors 

119,143,144,  146 

Laying  and  finishing  119,  134 


INDEX 


345 


Floors,   Hardwood — (Cont'd) 
Maple,  beech  and  birch 

floors,  Sizes  for 133 

Nailing 131,  134,  139 

Oak  Floors,  Care  of 142 

Oak  floors,  Finishing. . .  140 
Oak  flooring,  Grading  of  137 
Oak  flooring,  Laying..  139 
Oak  flooring,  Sizes  for..  137 
Pine  floors,  Finishing. .  118 

Foreign  woods 311 

Foresters,  District  336 

Forest  products    316 

Forest  areas  in  U.  S 325 

Forest  ownership   326 

Forest  regions  of  U.  S.   . .  323 

Forests,   National    326,335 

Private    327 

State    327 

Forest  Service  of  U.  S..  .75,  334 
Laboratory    at    Madison, 

Wis 336 

Publications  of   339 

Furniture      and      fixtures, 
Lumber  used  for 171 


Hardwood —  ( Cont'd ) 

Shipping  weights  of  ...     59 

Standard  sizes  of 56 

Harness,  Wood  used  for. .  212 

Heartwood    7 

Hemlock   67,  268 

Hickory   269 

Holly,  Factory  uses  of 271 

Honeycombing,  Causes  of . .  81 
Hornbeam,  Factory  uses  of  272 
Hygroscopicity  82 


Illustrations,  see  Plates 
Impact  resistance  tests...     27 

Imported  woods 311 

Industries  using  wood,  Re- 
ports on    224 

Information,     Sources     of 

224,  334 

Insulator  pins  and  brack- 
ets, Wood  used  for  ..  214 


Joints  in  pavements  128 


Grading  of  lumber  33,  39 

Diagrams  for 37 

Systems    of    38 

Grading  maple,  beech,  and 

birch  flooring 131 

Grading  oak  flooring   137 

Grading     structural     tim- 
bers   62,70,  74 

Graining    1°9 

Grains  in  wood 71,  95 


Hackberry,  Uses  of 267 

Handles,  Wood  used  for. .  178 

Hardness  of  woods 28,     29 

Hardwood   U 


Kiln-drying    76,    80 

Kitchen   cabinets,   Lumber 

used  for   185,  186 

Knots,  Covering   94 

Dimensions  of  72 

Kinds  of 65,    72 


Laboratory,  Forest  Service  336 

Larch 67,273,  305 

Laundry  appliances,  Lum- 
ber used  for 188 

Laurel,  Factory  uses  of...  273 

Lengths    of   hardwood 56 

Lignum  vitae  313 

Linseed  oil  9* 


346 


INDEX 


Load  tests,  Maximum 26 

Locust 273 

Longleaf  pine 66,  290,  294 

Lumber,  Bulletins 334 

Consumption  ..167,  316,  328 
Cut  in  various  sections.  320 
Cut  in  U.  S.,  Chart  of. .  320 
Grades  of  ...33,  39,  131,  137 
Manufacturers,  Associa- 
tions of 38,  334 

Prices,  see  Prices 
Production  of  .  .317,  318,  320 

Sizes  of  42 

Lumbering  in  U.  S.  . .  .316,  320 


Machine  construction, 

Lumber  used  for 192 

Magnolia,  Factory  uses  of  275 

Mahogany  313 

Maple,  Species  and  factory 

uses  of 276 

Maple  flooring,  Grading  . .  131 

Matches,  Wood  used  for. .  187 

Medullary  rays  6 

Milling  industry  316,  320 

Mill  products 317,  318,  320 

Modulus  of  elasticity.. 23,  24 

Modulus  of  rupture...  17,  31 

Moisture,  Effects  of 28 

Moldings,  Lumber  for 194 

Mountain  ash,  Factory 

uses  of 311 

Mulberry,  Factory  uses  of  311 
Musical  instruments,  Wood 

used  for    180 


Nailing  flooring  .  .131,  134,  139 

Norway  pine   67,  290,  294 

Novelties,  Wood  used  for.  175 


Oak,    Species   and   factory 

uses  of 280 

Oak  flooring,  Use  of 143 

Grading  and  sizes 137 

Laying    j!39 

Uses  of  grades 138 

Oak  floors,  Care  of.  ..140,  142 
Oil  finish  for  floors  101, 142,  145 

Orange  wood   311 

Oregon  ash  231 

Osage  orange  288 


Padouk,  Factory  uses  of  . .  313 

Painting,  see  Paints 

Paints  and  stains  93 

Architectural      specifica- 
tions    103 

Enameling    112 

Fillers,  Paste  and  liquid.  95 

Fire-re  tar  dant  paints  . . .  153 

Floor  finishes  

..97,  101,  118,  119,  134,  142 

Graining    109 

Linseed  oil  94 

Natural   finish   for   soft- 
woods    110 

Oil  finish  for  floors..  101,  142 

Painting  exteriors 104 

Painting  floors   101 

Painting    interiors 109 

Shellac,  Use  of  ..94,  99,  110 

Shingle  stains 102,  108 

Staining  exteriors 107 

Staining  hardwoods 115 

Staining  softwoods    111 

Stains    95,    102,  108 

Varnish  finish   

96,100,111,113,  141 

Wax  finish  for  floors  99,  141 

Waxing   hardwoods 115 

Partition,  Sizes  of 49 

Patterns,  Lumber  used  for  205 


INDEX 


347 


Patterns,  Standard    

45,47,48,     50 

Pavements,  Block,  in  U.  S.  121 

Essentials   122 

Expansion  joints    128 

Fillers    128 

Foundation    128 

Specifications  for 126 

Paving  blocks,   Wood,  see 

Pavements,  Block 
Paving  materials,  Lumber 

used  for 190 

Persimmon    289 

Picture  frames,  Lumber  for  194 
Pine,   Species  and  factory 

uses   of    289 

Pine   floors,   Finishing 118 

Pipe,  Lumber  used  for 198 

Pitch  pockets   65,    71 

Pitch   streak    66 

Pith   rays    6 

Planing  mill   products 169 

Plates,  List  of    352 

Playground   equipment 213 

Plumbers'  woodwork 207 

Poles 322 

Economy  of  treating  ...     92 
Polishing,  see  Paints 

Poplar,  Yellow 297 

Porosity  of  wood  5 

Preservation  of  wood... 83,  127 

Bluing  of  timber   90 

Borers,  Protection  from.     90 

Creosote    86 

Creosoting  plants    85 

Savings  effected  91 

Prices,  Lumber  159 

Comparative        building 

costs    162 

Mill  prices   160 

Relative     price     fluctua- 
tions of  lumber,  food, 

etc 169,  161 

Prima  vera 313 


Printing  materials  218 

Professional  instruments..  201 

Properties  of  wood 11,  336 

Publications,   Forest   Serv- 
ice     • ,339 

Pulleys,  Lumber  used  for.  201 

Pulpwood    322 

Pumps,  Lumber  used  for. .  198 


Radford  on  finishing  floors    97 

On  relative  costs 164 

Red  gum,  Factory  uses  of  264 

Red  heart   66 

Redwood  67,  300 

Refrigerators   185 

Reports    224,  339 

Rings,  Annual  6 

Rollers  for  shades  and  maps  189 
Rosewood,  Factory  uses  of  314 

Rosin    322 

Rot    66,    84 

S 

Saddles,  Wood  used  for. . .  212 
Sap  gum,  Factory  uses  of.  265 

Sapwood    7 

Sassafras,  Factory  uses  of  301 
Satinwood,  Factory  uses  of  314 
Sawmills  in  U.  S 316,  317 

Output  of,  Chart   320 

Scientific    instruments 201 

Seasoning  of  timber 76 

Air-drying  and  kiln-dry- 
ing         76 

Sewing  machines 198, 

Shakes    66,    70 

Shearing  strength  ..22,  23,  126 
Shellac,  Uses  of  ...94,  99,  110 

tShingle    stains    102,108 

Shingles,  Paints  for 153 

Shingles,  Manufacture  320,  321 

Shipbuilding    182 

Shiplap,  Standard  sizes  of    63 


348 


INDEX 


Shipping  weights  57 

Shipworms,  Protection  from    90 
Shoe  lasts,  Wood  used  for.  193 

Shortleaf  pine 66,  290,  297 

Shrinkage  of  wood 32 

Shuttles,  Wood  used  for..  195 
Siding,  Standard  sizes  of. .  49 

Signs  and  supplies 217 

Silos,  Lumber  used  for 181 

Silver  bell,  Factory  uses  of  311 

Sizes  of  lumber 42,     44 

Of  flooring 133,  137 

Skewers,  Wood  used  for. .  215 

Softwoods   11 

Shipping  weights  of  57,    58 

Southern  yellow  pine 

66,  290,  291 

Specifications    for    bridge 

and  trestle  timbers 68 

For       structural       tim- 
bers    62,    68 

For  wood  block  paving.  126 
Specific  gravity. . .     13,  15,    31 

Spools,  Wood  used  for 195 

Sporting  goods   204 

Springwood    6 

Spruce 67,  301 

Stains,  see  Paints 

Steaming  of  lumber 79 

Stiffness  of  wood 23 

Strength  of  wood 

9,  14,  19,21,  31,  60 

Relation  to  weight...  18,    19 

Of  paving  blocks 126 

Of  timbers   60 

Structural  timbers 60 

Bridge  and  trestle 68 

Classification   of    64,    74 

Grading  rules  ...62,  70,    74 

Sizes  of    62,     63 

Tests,  Forest  Service. . .     75 

Structure  of  wood  3 

Stumpage  in  U.  S.  ...325,  330 
Sumac,  Factory  uses  of . . .  311 
Summer  cutting  79 


Summerwood    6 

Sycamore,  Factory  uses  of  304 


Tables- 
Aeroplanes,    Wood    used 
for  223 

Agricultural  implements, 

Wood  used  for  178 

Alder,  Red,  Uses  of 227 

Annual    wood    consump- 
tion    168 

Apple  wood,  Uses  of 228 

Artificial     limbs,     Wood 

used   for    223 

Ash,  Factory  uses  of  ...  229 
Athletic  goods,  Wood  for  205 
Automobiles,  Lumber  for  200 
Balm  of  Gilead,  Factory 

uses   of    232 

Basswood,  Uses  of 232 

Beech,  Factory  uses  of  .  235 
Birch,  Factory  uses  of. .  237 

Black  gum,  Uses  of 264 

Black  walnut,  Uses  of . . .  308 
Boat  building,  Lumber 

used  for    183 

Bobbins,  Wood  used  for.  196 
Boot  and  shoe  findings, 

Wood  used  for 194 

Boxes  and  crates,  Lum- 
ber used  for 171 

Boxwood,   Uses   of 312 

Brooms,  Lumber  for 221 

Brushes,  Wood  used  for  210 

Buckeye,  Uses  of 241 

Bungs,  Wood  used  for. .  207 
Butcher  blocks,  Wood  for  216 

Butternut,  Uses  of 242 

Canes,  Wood  used  for  . .  221 
Carpet-sweepers,  Lumber 

used  for 221 

Car    construction,    Lum- 
ber used  for 174 


INDEX 


349 


Tables—  ( Continued ) 

Caskets,  Lumber  for 185 

Cedar,  Factory  uses  of. .  245 
Cherry,  Factory  uses  of.  248 

Chestnut,  Uses  of 250 

Circassian   walnut,   Fac- 
tory uses  of 315 

Clocks,   Lumber   for 217 

Cocobola,  Uses  of 312 

Coffins,  Lumber  used  for  185 
Conveyors,  Lumber  for. .  201 

Cottonwood,  Uses  of 251 

Crushing      strength     of 

woods   20 

Cucumber,  Uses  of 253 

Cypress,  Factory  uses  of  254 

Dogwood,   Uses   of 258 

Douglas  flr,  Uses  of 257 

Dowels,  Wood  used  for. .  211 
Ebony,  Factory  uses  of. .  312 

Elasticity  of  woods 24 

Electrical          apparatus, 

Lumber  for   209 

Elevators,  Lumber  for . .  212 
Elm,  Factory  uses  of. ...  258 

Eucalyptus,  Uses  of 261 

Excelsior,  Wood  used  for  187 
Faucets,  Wood  used  for.  207 

Fir,  Factory  uses  of 262 

Firearms,  Lumber  for. . .  222 
Flasks,  Lumber  used  for  206 
Foreign  woods,  Uses  of. .  312 
Furniture,  Lumber  for. .  172 

Hackberry,  Uses  of 267 

Handles,  Wood  used  for  179 

Hardness  of  woods 29 

Hardwoods,  Sizes  of  ...  56 
Hardwoods,  Shipping 

weights  of    59 

Harness,  Wood  used  for  213 

Hemlock,   Uses   of 268 

Hickory,  Factory  uses  of  270 
Holly,  Factory  uses  of. .  272 
Hornbeam,  Uses  of 272 


Tables— (Continued) 

Impact  resistance  tests.     27 
Insulator  pins  and  brack- 
ets, Wood  used  for 215 

Larch,  Factory  uses  of..  306 
Laundry  appliances, 

Lumber  used  for  189 

Laurel,  Factory  uses  of  273 
Lignum  vitae,  Uses  of . . .  313 
Load  tests,  Maximum..  26 
Locust,  Factory  uses  of.  274 

Lumber  cut  in  U.  S 320 

Lumber  production,  An- 
nual, in  U.  S 318 

Machine  construction, 

Lumber  used  for 193 

Magnolia,  Uses  of 275 

Mahogany,  Uses  of 313 

Maple,  Factory  uses  of.  277 
Matches,  Wood  used  for.  188 
Modulus  of  elasticity...  24 
Modulus  of  rupture. .  .17,  31 
Moldings,  Lumber  for. . .  195 
Musical  Instruments, 

Wood  used  for 181 

Novelties,  Wood  for 176 

Oak,  Factory  uses  of...  282 
Osage  orange,  Uses  of . . .  288 
Padouk,  Factory  uses  of.  313 

Patterns,  Lumber  for 206 

Paving  materials,   Lum- 
ber used  for 191 

Persimmon,  Uses  of 289 

Picture  frames,  Lumber 

used  for 195 

Pine,  Factory  uses  of  . .  291 
Pipe,  Lumber  used  for..  199 
Playgound  equipment, 

Lumber  used  for  ....  214 
Plumbers'        woodwork, 

Lumber  used  for  208 

Poplar,  Yellow,  Uses  of  298 
Prices,  Mill,  of  lumber..  160 
Prima  vera,  Uses  of 313 


350 


INDEX 


Tables —  ( Continued ) 
Printing  materials,  Lum- 
ber used  for 219 

Professional  instruments, 

Wood  used  for 202 

Pulleys,  Lumber  for 201 

Pumps,   Lumber   for. . . .  199 
Ratio  of  bending  strength 
to  weight  of  woods ...     19 

Red  gum,  Uses  of 265 

Redwood,   Uses   of 300 

Refrigerators,  Lumber  for  186 
Rollers   for   shades   and 
maps,  Lumber  for. . . .  190 

Rosewood,  Uses  of 314 

Saddles,  Wood  used  for.  213 

Sap  gum,  Uses  of 265 

Sassafras,  Uses  of 301 

Satinwood,  Uses  of 314 

Sawmills,    Number    and 

output  of,  in  U.  S 317 

Scientific       instruments, 

Wood  used  for 202 

Sewing  machines,   Lum- 
ber used  for 198 

Shearing   strength 22 

Shingles,     Annual    pro- 
duction  of    321 

Shipbuilding,  Lumber  for  183 
Shuttles,  Wood  used  for  196 

Signs,   Lumber   for 218 

Silos,  Lumber  used  for. .  182 

Sizes  of  lumber 44 

Sizes   for  maple,   beech, 

and  birch  flooring 133 

Skewers,  Wood  used  for  216 
Softwoods,  Shipping 

weights  of    58 

Specific        gravity        of 

wood    15,     31 

Spools,  Wood  used  for. .  196 
Sporting  goods,  Wood  for  205 
Spruce,  Factory  uses  of.  302 
Standing  timber 325,  326 


Tables —  ( Concluded ) 
Strength  of  moist  wood.     31 

Stumpage  in  U.  S 325 

Sycamore,  Uses  of 304 

Tamarack,  Uses  of 306 

Tanks,  Lumber  used  for  182 
Teak,  Factory  uses  of . . .  314 

Timber  cut  in  U.  S 320 

Timber,  Standing. .  .325,  326 
Tobacco  boxes,  Lumber 

used  for    197 

Tobacco  pipes,  Wood  for  223 
Toothpicks,  Wood  for...  188 

Toughness  tests 26 

Toys,  Lumber  used  for. .  203 
Trunks,  Lumber  used  for  192 
Tupelo,  Factory  uses  of.  307 
Turkish  boxwood,  Uses  of  312 
Umbrella  sticks,  Wood  for  221 
Valises,  Lumber  used  for  192 
Vehicles,  Wood  used  for  175 
Veneer,  Production  of . . .  321 
Walnut,  Black,  Uses  of. .  308 
Walnut,  Circassian,  Uses 

of ' 315 

Weighing   apparatus, 

Lumber  used  for 220 

Weight  of  moist  wood. . .  31 
Whips,  Wood  used  for. .  221 
Willow,  Factory  uses  of.  310 
Wood  blocks,  Longitudi- 
nal shearing  strength.  126 
Woodenware,  Wood  for. .  176 
Yucca,  Factory  uses  of. .  310 

Tamarack,  Defined  67 

Species  and  factory  uses 

of  305 

Tannin  322 

Tanks,  Lumber  used  for. .  181 

Teak,  Factory  uses  of 314 

Tensile   strength    of   wood     21 
Teredo,   Protection   from . .     90 

Tests 75,  334,  336 

Thicknesses  of  hardwood 56 


INDEX 


351 


Ties,  Railroad,  Treating..     91      Weight  of  wood 

Timber,  Bulletins 334  9,  13,  15,  19,  31,    61 

Consumption  of. 316,  320,  328          Relation  to  strength 19 

Famine  impending? 327      Weights,   Shipping 57 

Mechanical  properties, . .  336  West  Coast  Lumber  Mfrs. 

Physical  properties   ....  337  Association,  Rules  for 

Preservation  of  338  structural  timbers 63 

Standing   325,  326,  330      Western  pine 67,  291,  292 

Supply  of,  in  U.  S 323      Whips,  Wood  used  for 220 

Timbers,     Structural,     see  White  lead   94 

Structural  timbers.  White  pine  67,  289,  291 

Tobacco  boxes,  Lumber  for  197  Willow,  Factory  uses  of. .  309 

Tobacco  pipes,  Wood  for. .  223      Winter  cutting 79 

Toothpicks,  Wood  used  for  187  Wood,  Consumption  of  167,  316 

Toughness  of  woods 25          Figure  of 9 

Toys,  Lumber  used  for...  203          Future  of 331 

Trees,    Growth    of 6  Mechanical    properties..  336 

Trestle   timbers,   Speciflca-  Permanent  advantages..  331 

tions  for 68  Physical    Properties . .  11,  337 

Trunks,  Lumber  used  for.  191          Porosity  of  5 

Tupelo,  Factory  uses  of..  307          Strength  of 9,    19 

Turpentine    322          Structure  of  3 

Substitutes  for 331 

Useful  properties  of 12 

Umbrella  sticks,  Wood  for  220         Weight  of 9,    19 

Uses  of  commercial  woods  226      Wood  alcohol  322 

Uses  of  lumber,  Special...  167  Woodenware,  Wood  for...  175 

Woodlots,  Farm    327 

v  Woods,  Classification  of.. 5,    11 

Valises,  Lumber  used  for.  191          Commercial  226 

Varnish,  see  Paints  Foreign,  used  in  U.  S...  311 

Varnishing    floors 141,144  Y 

Vehicles,  Wood  used  for. .   174 

Veneer  Manufacture..  319,  321  Yellow  pine  floors,  Finish 

for    143,  144 

W  Yellow  Pine  Mfrs.  Associa- 

Walnut,  Black,  Uses  of...  308  tion    Rules  for  struc- 

Walnut  Circassian,  Uses  of  315  tural  timbers . . .     62 

^ne    '                                     66  Yucca,  Factory  uses  of...  310 

Water,  Effects  of,  on  wood .     28  2 
Wax   finish   for   floors.... 

99,  141,  145  Zinc  chloride  as  a  preserva- 

Weighing  apparatus,  Lum-  tive   I 

ber  used  for 219     Zinc  oxide 1 


352 


INDEX 
LIST  OF  PLATES 


Plate  No. 

Ash,  White,  Stand  of 18 

Boxes,  spools,  etc.,  of  paper 

birch  33 

Cedar    posts,    Hauling    in 

winter 34 

Cedar    shavings    from 

shingle  mill  36 

Creosoted  red  oak,  Section    24 
Creosoting      by      cylinder 

method 22 

Creosoting  fence-post  butts    25 
Creosoting     by     open-tank 

method    23,    24 

Creosoting  plants  in  U.  S. .     21 
Cross-sections    of    trees, 
showing  tissues,  medul- 
lary rays,  etc 4,    5 

Cross-sections     of    pine, 
showing       springwood 

and  summerwood 3 

Cross-sections     of     logs, 
showing   rings,    heart- 
wood,    and    sapwood..2,  3 
Cypress     shingles     from 
Washington's  home...     23 

Douglas  fir  forest 11 

Drying  rooms  in  factories.     31 

Dry-Kilns,    Battery    of 19 

Factory  interiors. 30,  31,  32,     33 

Figures  of  wood 1 

Flooring,  Yellow  pine  and 

oak    28 

Floor,  Maple,  in  dance  hall    27 
Forest  products  laboratory    39 

Forest  regions  of  U.  S 37 

Handles  for  paint  brushes.     32 

Knots   8,  9,     10 

Laboratory,  Forest  prod- 
ucts, at  Madison,  Wis.     39 
Longleaf  pine,  Dense  stand     12 


Plate  No. 

Lumbering  scenes 34,  35 

Lumbering  Western  yellow 

pine  in  national  forest  15 

Lumber  piles  in  yard 35 

Maple  flooring  in  hall 27 

National  forests  and  drain- 
age systems  of  U.  S. . .  38 
Norway    pine    and    paper 

birch  36 

Oak,   White,   and   hickory, 

Mixed,  forest  of 17 

Old  wooden  houses 20 

Pavement,  Creosoted  block, 

Laying  26 

Paving  block,  Creosoted ...  26 

Piling  destroyed  by  teredo  24 

Piling  lumber  35 

Pine,     White,     Second- 

growth,  Stand  of 13 

Pine  logs,  White,  Load  of  14 
Pine,    Western    yellow, 

Stand  of   14 

Pitch  pocket 10 

Pitch  streak 10 

Railroad    tie    attacked    by 

fungi 25 

Redwoods  in  California...  16 
Sawmill    interior,    Timber 

construction   27 

Sawmills,     Old-time     and 

modern,    contrasted. ...  7 
Shoe  last  blocks,  Maple...  36 
Shuttles,    Stages    in   mak- 
ing    32 

Tests,  Forest  Service 6,  29 

Torch    tests    showing   fire- 
retarding  effects  of 

paint 29 

Veneered  door  36 

Wood,  Figures  of 1 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


JUL   24    1920 

JAN  2      1930 

£30 
MAY  1  7  1935 

&UG5     1938 
HOV23  193* 


1946 


41949 


APR  £  4 1983 

College    i,ro  \9  70 

c°4* 


Library 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT       - 

LOS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACIL 


000953050     2 
i 


